A fee (alternatively & rarely: fief, fiefdom, Latinised to ''feudum''), under the system of medieval European feudalism, consisted of heritable lands or revenue-producing property granted by a lord to a vassal who held it in seisin in return for a form of allegiance, usually given by homage and fealty. Not only land but anything of value could be held in fee, such as an office, a right of exploitation (e.g., hunting, fishing) or any other type of revenue, rather than the land it comes from.
In the 10th and 11th centuries the term "fee" (feudum) could be used either to describe dependent tenure held by a man from his lord, as the term is used now by historians, or it could mean simply "property". It lacked a precise meaning until the middle of the 12th century, when it received formal definition from land lawyers.
Historically the fees of the 11th and the 12th century derived from two separate sources. The first was land carved out of the estates of the upper nobility. The second source was allodial land transformed into dependent tenures. During the 10th century in northern France and the 11th century in France south of the Loire, local magnates either recruited or forced the owners of allodial holdings into dependent relationships and they were turned into fiefs. The process occurred later in Germany, and was still going on in the 13th century.
In 13th-century England, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy the term "feodum" was used to describe a dependent tenure held from a lord by a vassal in return for a specified amount of knight service and occasional financial payments (feudal incidents).
However, knight service in war was far less common than:
A lord in late 12th-century England and France could also claim the right of:
Originally, vassalage did not imply the giving or receiving of landholdings (which were granted only as a reward for loyalty), but by the eighth century the giving of a landholding was becoming standard. The granting of a landholding to a vassal did not relinquish the lord's property rights, but only the use of the lands and their income; the granting lord retained ultimate ownership of the fee and could, technically, recover the lands in case of disloyalty or death.
By the middle of the 10th century, fee had largely become hereditary. The eldest son of a deceased vassal would inherit, but first he had to do homage and fealty to the lord and pay a "relief" for the land (a monetary recognition of the lord's continuing proprietary rights over the property). Henry II transformed them into important sources of royal income and patronage. The discontent of barons with royal claims to arbitrarily assessed "reliefs" and other feudal payments under Henry's son King John resulted in Magna Carta of 1215.
Eventually, great feudal lords sought also to seize governmental and legal authority (the collection of taxes, the right of high justice, etc.) in their lands, and some passed these rights to their own vassals.
Category:Feudalism Category:Real property law
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Office | First Secretary of the Socialist Party |
---|---|
Term start | 26 November 2008On leave during the Socialist Party primary |
Predecessor | François Hollande |
Successor | Harlem Désir (Acting) |
Office2 | Mayor of Lille |
Term start2 | 25 March 2001 |
Predecessor2 | Pierre Mauroy |
Office3 | Minister of Social Affairs |
Primeminister3 | Lionel Jospin |
Term start3 | 2 June 1997 |
Term end3 | 18 October 2000 |
Predecessor3 | Jean-Claude Gaudin |
Successor3 | Élisabeth Guigou |
Office4 | Minister of Labour, Employment and Vocational Training |
Primeminister4 | Édith CressonPierre Bérégovoy |
Term start4 | 15 May 1991 |
Term end4 | 28 March 1993 |
Predecessor4 | Jean-Pierre Soisson |
Successor4 | Michel Giraud |
Birth date | August 08, 1950 |
Birth place | Paris, France |
Party | Socialist Party |
Alma mater | Pantheon-Assas Paris II UniversityInstitut des Sciences Sociales du TravailParis Institute of Political StudiesNational School of Administration |
Religion | Roman Catholicism (Lapsed) }} |
Aubry joined the PS in 1974 and was appointed Minister of Labour by Prime Minister Édith Cresson in 1991, but lost her position in 1993 after the Right won the legislative elections. However, she became Minister of Social Affairs when Lionel Jospin was appointed Prime Minister in 1997. She is mostly known for having pushed the popular 35-hour workweek law, known as the "Loi Aubry", reducing the nominal length of the normal full-time working week from 39 to 35 hours.
Aubry stepped down from her Cabinet post in 2001 to be elected Mayor of Lille in place of Pierre Mauroy. Aubry subsequently lost her seat in the National Assembly in the general election of 2002. In March 2008, she was reelected Mayor of Lille, with 66.55% of the votes.
In November 2008, she was elected to lead the Socialist Party, narrowly defeating Ségolène Royal; while Royal disputed the results, the Socialist Party declared on November 25, 2008 that Aubry had won the contested election. On 28 June 2011, Martine Aubry announced she will seek the Socialist nomination to run in the 2012 presidential election.
Between 1973 and 1975, she studied at the prestigious École nationale d'administration (ÉNA, National School of Administration). She became a civil administrator at the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (France) (''Ministère du Travail et des Affaires sociales''), during which time she was active within the French Democratic Confederation of Labour (CFDT). She became a professor at ÉNA in 1978, and was seconded to the State Council between 1980 and 1981.
Following the election of François Mitterrand to the French presidency in 1981, she successively held several posts at the Ministry of Social Affairs, in the cabinets of Jean Auroux and Pierre Bérégovoy. In 1984, she investigated French asbestos policy for the Comité Permanent Amiante (Permanent Asbestos Committee, an informal public-private working group formed to manage the health problems of workers affected by asbestos). The group's deputy director, Jean-Luc Pasquier, testified before the courts to account for the group's members' actions.
After the defeat of the socialists in the French legislative election of 1986, she was named Master of Requests at the State Council. From 1989 to 1991, she took up the post of Assistant Director at Pechiney, working with Jean Gandois. She was involved with the opening of a plant at Dunkerque and the closure of the aluminium works at Noguères.
When the right came into power at the French legislative election in 1986, she started the ''Fondation Agir Contre l'Exclusion'' (FACE, the Act Against Exclusion Foundation). In 1995, Pierre Mauroy named her as the first deputy to the Mayor of Lille, thus giving her a foothold in the department of Nord.
Lionel Jospin, who became the socialist candidate as French President in 1995, made her his campaign spokesman during the presidential campaign. Upon his defeat, Jospin became first secretary of the Socialist Party, and offered her the number two spot, which Aubry refused.
Although she had good relations with part of the establishment, especially with her former Pechiney boss, Jean Gandois, and the Parti communiste francais, she did not get on well with the unions, in particular with Nicole Notat, the former General Secretary of the CFDT
She has been described as hard and demanding. She counters, "''Je dis les choses en face, je ne suis pas faux-cul. Mais je crois être bien moins dure que beaucoup de gens en politique. Je suis même peut-être trop sensible.'' (I'm up-front, and I'm not a hypocrite. But I think I'm much less hard than many politicians. I may even be too sensitive.)
Minister of Labor, Employment and Training : 1991-1993.
Minister of Employment and Solidarity : 1997-2000 (Resignation).
Electoral mandates
''National Assembly of France''
Member of the National Assembly of France for Nord : Elected in 1997, but became minister in June / 2000-2002. Elected in 1997.
''Municipal Council''
Mayor of Lille : Since 2001. Reelected in 2008.
Deputy-mayor of Lille : 1995-2001.
Municipal councillor of Lille : Since 1995. Reelected in 2001, 2008.
''Urban community Council''
President of the Urban Community of Lille Métropole : 2008 - June 2011 (Resignation).
Vice-president of the Urban Community of Lille Métropole : 1995-2008. Reelected in 2001.
Member of the Urban Community of Lille Métropole : Since 1995. Reelected in 2001, 2008.
Political function
First Secretary (leader) of the Socialist Party (France) : 2008 - June 2011 (Resignation).
|- |- |-
Category:1950 births Category:Alumni of Sciences Po Category:Alumni of the École Nationale d'Administration Category:Chairmen of the Socialist Party (France) Category:French women mayors Category:Living people Category:Mayors of Lille Category:People from Paris Category:Socialist Party (France) politicians Category:Candidates for the French presidential election, 2012
ca:Martine Aubry da:Martine Aubry de:Martine Aubry et:Martine Aubry es:Martine Aubry fa:مارتین اوبری fr:Martine Aubry it:Martine Aubry hu:Martine Aubry nl:Martine Aubry ja:マルティーヌ・オブリー no:Martine Aubry oc:Martine Aubry pl:Martine Aubry pt:Martine Aubry ru:Обри, Мартин fi:Martine Aubry tr:Martine AubryThis text is licensed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-SA License. This text was originally published on Wikipedia and was developed by the Wikipedia community.
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