Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind turbines to make electricity, windmills for mechanical power, windpumps for water pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships.

Wind power, as an alternative to fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, and produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network. At the end of 2010, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 197 gigawatts (GW). Energy production was 430 TWh, which is about 2.5% of worldwide electricity usage. Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as 21% of stationary electricity production in Denmark, 18% in Portugal, 16% in Spain, 14% in Ireland and 9% in Germany in 2010. As of 2011, 83 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis.

The construction of wind farms is not universally welcomed because of their visual impact, but any effects on the environment from wind power are generally less problematic than those of any other power source. The intermittency of wind seldom creates problems when using wind power to supply up to 20% of total electricity demand, but as the proportion rises, increased costs, a need to upgrade the grid, and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production may occur. Power management techniques such as exporting and importing power to neighboring areas or reducing demand when wind production is low, can mitigate these problems.

Small wind facilities are used to provide electricity to isolated locations and utility companies increasingly buy back surplus electricity produced by small domestic wind turbines.

History

Humans have been using wind power for at least 5,500 years to propel sailboats and sailing ships. Windmills have been used for irrigation pumping and for milling grain since the 7th century AD in what is now Afghanistan, India, Iran and Pakistan.

In the US, the development of the "water-pumping windmill" was the major factor in allowing the farming and ranching of vast areas otherwise devoid of readily accessible water. Windpumps contributed to the expansion of rail transport systems throughout the world, by pumping water from water wells for the steam locomotives. The multi-bladed wind turbine atop a lattice tower made of wood or steel was, for many years, a fixture of the landscape throughout rural America. When fitted with generators and battery banks, small wind machines provided electricity to isolated farms.

In July 1887, a Scottish academic, Professor James Blyth, undertook wind power experiments that culminated in a UK patent in 1891. In the US, Charles F. Brush produced electricity using a wind powered machine, starting in the winter of 1887-1888, which powered his home and laboratory until about 1900. In the 1890s, the Danish scientist and inventor Poul la Cour constructed wind turbines to generate electricity, which was then used to produce hydrogen. These were the first of what was to become the modern form of wind turbine.

Small wind turbines for lighting of isolated rural buildings were widespread in the first part of the 20th century. Larger units intended for connection to a distribution network were tried at several locations including Balaklava USSR in 1931 and in a 1.25 megawatt (MW) experimental unit in Vermont in 1941.

The modern wind power industry began in 1979 with the serial production of wind turbines by Danish manufacturers Kuriant, Vestas, Nordtank, and Bonus. These early turbines were small by today's standards, with capacities of 20–30 kW each. Since then, they have increased greatly in size, with the Enercon E-126 capable of delivering up to 7 MW, while wind turbine production has expanded to many countries.

Wind energy

The Earth is unevenly heated by the sun, such that the poles receive less energy from the sun than the equator; along with this, dry land heats up (and cools down) more quickly than the seas do. The differential heating drives a global atmospheric convection system reaching from the Earth's surface to the stratosphere which acts as a virtual ceiling. Most of the energy stored in these wind movements can be found at high altitudes where continuous wind speeds of over occur. Eventually, the wind energy is converted through friction into diffuse heat throughout the Earth's surface and the atmosphere.

The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use from all sources. The most comprehensive study as of 2005 found the potential of wind power on land and near-shore to be 72 TW, equivalent to 54,000 MToE (million tons of oil equivalent) per year, or over five times the world's current energy use in all forms. The potential takes into account only locations with mean annual wind speeds ≥ 6.9 m/s at 80 m. The study assumes six 1.5 megawatt, 77 m diameter turbines per square kilometer on roughly 13% of the total global land area (though that land would also be available for other compatible uses such as farming). The authors acknowledge that many practical barriers would need to be overcome to reach this theoretical capacity.

The practical limit to exploitation of wind power will be set by economic and environmental factors, since the resource available is far larger than any practical means to develop it.

Distribution of wind speed

The strength of wind varies, and an average value for a given location does not alone indicate the amount of energy a wind turbine could produce there. To assess the frequency of wind speeds at a particular location, a probability distribution function is often fit to the observed data. Different locations will have different wind speed distributions. The Weibull model closely mirrors the actual distribution of hourly wind speeds at many locations. The Weibull factor is often close to 2 and therefore a Rayleigh distribution can be used as a less accurate, but simpler model.

Wind farms

A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of electric power. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines, and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm may also be located offshore.

Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the US. As of November 2010, the Roscoe Wind Farm is the largest onshore wind farm in the world at 781.5 MW, followed by the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center (735.5 MW). As of November 2010, the Thanet Wind Farm in the UK is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 300 MW, followed by Horns Rev II (209 MW) in Denmark.

Wind power usage

Worldwide there are now many thousands of wind turbines operating, with a total nameplate capacity of 194,400 MW. Europe accounted for 48% of the total in 2009. World wind generation capacity more than quadrupled between 2000 and 2006, doubling about every three years.

In 2010, Spain became Europe's leading producer of wind energy, achieving 42,976 GWh. However, Germany holds the first place in Europe in terms of installed capacity, with a total of 27,215 MW at December 31, 2010. Wind power accounts for approximately 21% of electricity use in Denmark, 18% in Portugal, 16% in Spain, 14% in the Republic of Ireland, and 9% in Germany.

+Top 10 countries by windpower capacity (2010)
Country !! Windpower capacity (MW)
China	44,733
United States	40,180
Germany	27,215
Spain	20,676
India	13,066
Italy	5,797
France	5,660
United Kingdom	5,204
Canada	4,008
Denmark	3,734

+Top 10 European Union	EU countries by windpower electricity production (December 2010)
Country !! Windpower electricity production (GWh)
Spain	42,976
Germany	35,500
United Kingdom	11,440
France	9,600
Portugal	8,852
Denmark	7,808
Netherlands	3,972
Sweden	3,500
Ireland	3,473
Greece	2,200
Austria	2,100

Growth trends

In 2010, more than half of all new wind power was added outside of the traditional markets in Europe and North America. This was largely from new construction in China, which accounted for nearly half the new wind installations (16.5 GW).

Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) figures show that 2007 recorded an increase of installed capacity of 20 GW, taking the total installed wind energy capacity to 94 GW, up from 74 GW in 2006. Despite constraints facing supply chains for wind turbines, the annual market for wind continued to increase at an estimated rate of 37%, following 32% growth in 2006. In terms of economic value, the wind energy sector has become one of the important players in the energy markets, with the total value of new generating equipment installed in 2007 reaching €25 billion, or US$36 billion.

Although the wind power industry was impacted by the global financial crisis in 2009 and 2010, a BTM Consult five year forecast up to 2013 projects substantial growth. Over the past five years the average growth in new installations has been 27.6 percent each year. In the forecast to 2013 the expected average annual growth rate is 15.7 percent. More than 200 GW of new wind power capacity could come on line before the end of 2013. Wind power market penetration is expected to reach 3.35 percent by 2013 and 8 percent by 2018.

Offshore wind power

Offshore wind power refers to the construction of wind farms in bodies of water to generate electricity from wind. Better wind speeds are available offshore compared to on land, so offshore wind power’s contribution in terms of electricity supplied is higher.

Siemens and Vestas are the leading turbine suppliers for offshore wind power. DONG Energy, Vattenfall and E.ON are the leading offshore operators. As of October 2010, 3.16 GW of offshore wind power capacity was operational, mainly in Northern Europe. According to BTM Consult, more than 16 GW of additional capacity will be installed before the end of 2014 and the UK and Germany will become the two leading markets. Offshore wind power capacity is expected to reach a total of 75 GW worldwide by 2020, with significant contributions from China and the US.

Electricity generation

In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (often 34.5 kV), power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this medium-voltage electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage electric power transmission system.

The surplus power produced by domestic microgenerators can, in some jurisdictions, be fed into the network and sold to the utility company, producing a retail credit for the microgenerators' owners to offset their energy costs.

Grid management

Induction generators, often used for wind power, require reactive power for excitation so substations used in wind-power collection systems include substantial capacitor banks for power factor correction. Different types of wind turbine generators behave differently during transmission grid disturbances, so extensive modelling of the dynamic electromechanical characteristics of a new wind farm is required by transmission system operators to ensure predictable stable behaviour during system faults (see: Low voltage ride through). In particular, induction generators cannot support the system voltage during faults, unlike steam or hydro turbine-driven synchronous generators. Doubly-fed machines generally have more desirable properties for grid interconnection. Transmission systems operators will supply a wind farm developer with a ''grid code'' to specify the requirements for interconnection to the transmission grid. This will include power factor, constancy of frequency and dynamic behavior of the wind farm turbines during a system fault.

Capacity factor

Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never as much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year. The ratio of actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor. Typical capacity factors are 20–40%, with values at the upper end of the range in particularly favourable sites. For example, a 1 MW turbine with a capacity factor of 35% will not produce 8,760 MW·h in a year (1 × 24 × 365), but only 1 × 0.35 × 24 × 365 = 3,066 MW·h, averaging to 0.35 MW. Online data is available for some locations and the capacity factor can be calculated from the yearly output.

Unlike fueled generating plants, the capacity factor is affected by several parameters, including the variability of the wind at the site, but also the generator size- having a smaller generator would be cheaper and achieve higher capacity factor, but would make less electricity (and money) in high winds. Conversely a bigger generator would cost more and generate little extra power and, depending on the type, may stall out at low wind speed. Thus an optimum capacity factor can be used, which is usually around 20-35%.

In a 2008 study released by the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, the capacity factor achieved by the wind turbine fleet is shown to be increasing as the technology improves. The capacity factor achieved by new wind turbines in 2004 and 2005 reached 36%.

Penetration

Wind energy "penetration" refers to the fraction of energy produced by wind compared with the total available generation capacity. There is no generally accepted "maximum" level of wind penetration. The limit for a particular grid will depend on the existing generating plants, pricing mechanisms, capacity for storage or demand management, and other factors. An interconnected electricity grid will already include reserve generating and transmission capacity to allow for equipment failures; this reserve capacity can also serve to regulate for the varying power generation by wind plants. Studies have indicated that 20% of the total electrical energy consumption may be incorporated with minimal difficulty. These studies have been for locations with geographically dispersed wind farms, some degree of dispatchable energy, or hydropower with storage capacity, demand management, and interconnection to a large grid area export of electricity when needed. Beyond this level, there are few technical limits, but the economic implications become more significant. Electrical utilities continue to study the effects of large (20% or more) scale penetration of wind generation on system stability and economics.

At present, a few grid systems have penetration of wind energy above 5%: Denmark (values over 19%), Spain and Portugal (values over 11%), Germany and the Republic of Ireland (values over 6%). But even with a modest level of penetration, there can be times where wind power provides a substantial percentage of the power on a grid. For example, in the morning hours of 8 November 2009, wind energy produced covered more than half the electricity demand in Spain, setting a new record.

Variability and intermittency

Electricity generated from wind power can be highly variable at several different timescales: from hour to hour, daily, and seasonally. Annual variation also exists, but is not as significant. Related to variability is the short-term (hourly or daily) predictability of wind plant output. Like other electricity sources, wind energy must be "scheduled". Wind power forecasting methods are used, but predictability of wind plant output remains low for short-term operation.

Because instantaneous electrical generation and consumption must remain in balance to maintain grid stability, this variability can present substantial challenges to incorporating large amounts of wind power into a grid system. Intermittency and the non-dispatchable nature of wind energy production can raise costs for regulation, incremental operating reserve, and (at high penetration levels) could require an increase in the already existing energy demand management, load shedding, or storage solutions or system interconnection with HVDC cables. At low levels of wind penetration, fluctuations in load and allowance for failure of large generating units requires reserve capacity that can also regulate for variability of wind generation. Wind power can be replaced by other power stations during low wind periods. Transmission networks must already cope with outages of generation plant and daily changes in electrical demand. Systems with large wind capacity components may need more spinning reserve (plants operating at less than full load).

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity or other forms of grid energy storage can store energy developed by high-wind periods and release it when needed. Stored energy increases the economic value of wind energy since it can be shifted to displace higher cost generation during peak demand periods. The potential revenue from this arbitrage can offset the cost and losses of storage; the cost of storage may add 25% to the cost of any wind energy stored, but it is not envisaged that this would apply to a large proportion of wind energy generated. For example, in the UK, the 2 GW Dinorwig pumped storage plant evens out electrical demand peaks, and allows base-load suppliers to run their plant more efficiently. Although pumped storage power systems are only about 75% efficient, and have high installation costs, their low running costs and ability to reduce the required electrical base-load can save both fuel and total electrical generation costs.

In particular geographic regions, peak wind speeds may not coincide with peak demand for electrical power. In the US states of California and Texas, for example, hot days in summer may have low wind speed and high electrical demand due to air conditioning. Some utilities subsidize the purchase of geothermal heat pumps by their customers, to reduce electricity demand during the summer months by making air conditioning up to 70% more efficient; widespread adoption of this technology would better match electricity demand to wind availability in areas with hot summers and low summer winds. Another option is to interconnect widely dispersed geographic areas with an HVDC "Super grid". In the US it is estimated that to upgrade the transmission system to take in planned or potential renewables would cost at least $60 billion.

In the UK, demand for electricity is higher in winter than in summer, and so are wind speeds. Solar power tends to be complementary to wind. On daily to weekly timescales, high pressure areas tend to bring clear skies and low surface winds, whereas low pressure areas tend to be windier and cloudier. On seasonal timescales, solar energy typically peaks in summer, whereas in many areas wind energy is lower in summer and higher in winter. Thus the intermittencies of wind and solar power tend to cancel each other somewhat. The Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University of Kassel pilot-tested a combined power plant linking solar, wind, biogas and hydrostorage to provide load-following power around the clock, entirely from renewable sources.

A report on Denmark's wind power noted that their wind power network provided less than 1% of average demand 54 days during the year 2002. Wind power advocates argue that these periods of low wind can be dealt with by simply restarting existing power stations that have been held in readiness or interlinking with HVDC. Electrical grids with slow-responding thermal power plants and without ties to networks with hydroelectric generation may have to limit the use of wind power.

Three reports on the wind variability in the UK issued in 2009, generally agree that variability of wind needs to be taken into account, but it does not make the grid unmanageable; and the additional costs, which are modest, can be quantified. A 2006 International Energy Agency forum presented costs for managing intermittency as a function of wind-energy's share of total capacity for several countries, as shown:

Increase in system operation costs, Euros per MW·h, for 10% and 20% wind share

!	! 10%	! 20%
Germany	2.5	3.2
Denmark	0.4	0.8
Finland	0.3	1.5
Norway	0.1	0.3
Sweden	0.3	0.7

Capacity credit and fuel saving

Many commentators concentrate on whether or not wind has any "capacity credit" without defining what they mean by this and its relevance. Wind does have a capacity credit, using a widely accepted and meaningful definition, equal to about 20% of its rated output (but this figure varies depending on actual circumstances). This means that reserve capacity on a system equal in MW to 20% of added wind could be retired when such wind is added without affecting system security or robustness. But the precise value is irrelevant since the main value of wind (in the UK, worth 5 times the capacity credit value) is its fuel and CO2 savings.

According to a 2007 Stanford University study published in the Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, interconnecting ten or more wind farms can allow an average of 33% of the total energy produced to be used as reliable, baseload electric power, as long as minimum criteria are met for wind speed and turbine height.

Economics

Cost trends

Wind power has negligible fuel costs, but a high capital cost. The estimated average cost per unit incorporates the cost of construction of the turbine and transmission facilities, borrowed funds, return to investors (including cost of risk), estimated annual production, and other components, averaged over the projected useful life of the equipment, which may be in excess of twenty years. Energy cost estimates are highly dependent on these assumptions so published cost figures can differ substantially. A British Wind Energy Association report gives an average generation cost of onshore wind power of around 3.2 pence (between US 5 and 6 cents) per kW·h (2005). Cost per unit of energy produced was estimated in 2006 to be comparable to the cost of new generating capacity in the US for coal and natural gas: wind cost was estimated at $55.80 per MW·h, coal at $53.10/MW·h and natural gas at $52.50. Other sources in various studies have estimated wind to be more expensive than other sources. A 2009 study on wind power in Spain by Gabriel Calzada Alvarez Universidad Rey Juan Carlos concluded that each installed MW of wind power led to the loss of 4.27 jobs, by raising energy costs and driving away electricity-intensive businesses. The U.S. Department of Energy found the study to be seriously flawed, and the conclusion unsupported. The presence of wind energy, even when subsidised, can reduce costs for consumers (€5 billion/yr in Germany) by reducing the marginal price by minimising the use of expensive 'peaker plants'.

The marginal cost of wind energy once a plant is constructed is usually less than 1 cent per kW·h. In 2004, wind energy cost a fifth of what it did in the 1980s, and some expected that downward trend to continue as larger multi-megawatt turbines were mass-produced.However, capital costs have increased. For example, in the United States, installed cost increased in 2009 to $2,120 per kilowatt of nameplate capacity, compared with $1,950 in 2008, a 9% increase. Not as many facilities can produce large modern turbines and their towers and foundations, so constraints develop in the supply of turbines resulting in higher costs.

Incentives

Wind energy in many jurisdictions receives financial or other support to encourage its development. Wind energy benefits from subsidies in many jurisdictions, either to increase its attractiveness, or to compensate for subsidies received by other forms of production which have significant negative externalities.

In the US, wind power receives a tax credit for each kW·h produced; at 1.9 cents per kW·h in 2006, the credit has a yearly inflationary adjustment. Another tax benefit is accelerated depreciation. Many American states also provide incentives, such as exemption from property tax, mandated purchases, and additional markets for "green credits". Countries such as Canada and Germany also provide incentives for wind turbine construction, such as tax credits or minimum purchase prices for wind generation, with assured grid access (sometimes referred to as feed-in tariffs). These feed-in tariffs are typically set well above average electricity prices. The Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 contains extensions of credits for wind, including microturbines.

Secondary market forces also provide incentives for businesses to use wind-generated power, even if there is a premium price for the electricity. For example, socially responsible manufacturers pay utility companies a premium that goes to subsidize and build new wind power infrastructure. Companies use wind-generated power, and in return they can claim that they are undertaking strong "green" efforts. In the US the organization Green-e monitors business compliance with these renewable energy credits.

Full costs and lobbying

A House of Lords Select Committee report (2008) on renewable energy in the UK reported a "concern over the prospective role of wind generated and other intermittent sources of electricity in the UK, in the absence of a break-through in electricity storage technology or the integration of the UK grid with that of continental Europe".

Commenting on the EU's 2020 renewable energy target, Helm is critical of how the costs of wind power are cited by lobbyists. Helm also says that wind's problem of intermittent supply will probably lead to another dash-for-gas or dash-for-coal in Europe, possibly with a negative impact on energy security.

In the US, the wind power industry has recently increased its lobbying efforts considerably, spending about $5 million in 2009 after years of relative obscurity in Washington. By comparison, the US nuclear industry alone spent over $650 million on its lobbying efforts during a single ten year period ending in 2008.

Environmental effects

thumb|right|Livestock ignore wind turbines, and continue to graze as they did before wind turbines were installed. Compared to the environmental impact of traditional energy sources, the environmental impact of wind power is relatively minor. Wind power consumes no fuel, and emits no air pollution, unlike fossil fuel power sources. The energy consumed to manufacture and transport the materials used to build a wind power plant is equal to the new energy produced by the plant within a few months. While a wind farm may cover a large area of land, many land uses such as agriculture are compatible, with only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure made unavailable for use.

There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial structures. The scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant, depending on specific circumstances. Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities, and protection of peat bogs, affect the siting and operation of wind turbines.

There are anecdotal reports of negative effects from noise on people who live very close to wind turbines. Peer-reviewed research has generally not supported these statements.

Small-scale wind power

Small-scale wind power is the name given to wind generation systems with the capacity to produce up to 50 kW of electrical power. Isolated communities, that may otherwise rely on diesel generators may use wind turbines to displace diesel fuel consumption. Individuals may purchase these systems to reduce or eliminate their dependence on grid electricity for economic or other reasons, or to reduce their carbon footprint. Wind turbines have been used for household electricity generation in conjunction with battery storage over many decades in remote areas.

Grid-connected wind turbines may use grid energy storage, displacing purchased energy with local production when available. Off-grid system users can either adapt to intermittent power or use batteries, photovoltaic or diesel systems to supplement the wind turbine. Equipment such as parking meters or wireless Internet gateways may be powered by a wind turbine that charges a small battery, replacing the need for a connection to the power grid.

In locations near or around a group of high-rise buildings, wind shear generates areas of intense turbulence, especially at street-level. The risks associated with mechanical or catastrophic failure have thus plagued urban wind development in densely populated areas, rendering the costs of insuring urban wind systems prohibitive. Moreover, quantifying the amount of wind in urban areas has been difficult, as little is known about the actual wind resources of towns and cities.

A new Carbon Trust study into the potential of small-scale wind energy has found that small wind turbines could provide up to 1.5 terawatt hours (TW·h) per year of electricity (0.4% of total UK electricity consumption), saving 0.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (Mt CO₂) emission savings. This is based on the assumption that 10% of households would install turbines at costs competitive with grid electricity, around 12 pence (US 19 cents) a kW·h.

Distributed generation from renewable resources is increasing as a consequence of the increased awareness of climate change. The electronic interfaces required to connect renewable generation units with the utility system can include additional functions, such as the active filtering to enhance the power quality.

Research and development

Despite growing worldwide demand for wind energy, present wind technology is not optimized and there are still significant challenges. Most of the research has occurred in industry, and is not always easily shared. According to a research agenda from from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government, supported by the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future, wind energy research requires a drastic transformation. According to the report:

The gains that we are seeking require new innovations in fluid dynamics, control, materials, manufacturing, structures, and electric power distribution, as well of new ways of engaging the public in appreciating and accepting this technology, the associated transmission infrastructure and its effects on reducing climate change. Design and analysis tools need to be developed. Common computer codes need to be shared and refined in an open collegial way that cannot occur in industry. Researchers need to disseminate, debate, and share results openly, accelerating innovation in the subject.

See also

Airborne wind turbine

Controlled aerodynamic instability phenomena

Floating wind turbine

High altitude wind power

List of countries by electricity production from renewable sources

Lists of offshore wind farms by country

Lists of wind farms by country

List of wind turbine manufacturers

Sustainable energy

Vertical axis wind turbine

Wind profiler

Wind rights

Wind-diesel hybrid power system

Wind power in the United States

References

External links

How electricity is produced using Wind Energy

World Wind Energy Association (WWEA)

World Wide Windpower Statistics at TheWindpower.net

Animated content on Wind Technology

Wind-powered vehicles.

Inventing a super-kite to tap the energy of high-altitude wind, February 2009, (TED conference video), 5:25 min

Building a robust path for wind turbine engineering Movie and information on wind turbine engineering.

Nordic Energy Solutions Learn more about wind energy from the worlds leading region on renewable energy

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birth name	Lester Russel Brown
birth date	March 28, 1934
birth place	Bridgeton, New Jersey
occupation	Global environmental analyst, author,
period	1963–
known for	Analysis of global warming,food shortages, water depletion and energy shortages
website	Earth Policy Institute }}

Lester Russel Brown (born March 28, 1934) is an United States environmental analyst, founder of the Worldwatch Institute, and founder and president of the Earth Policy Institute, a nonprofit research organization based in Washington, D.C. BBC Radio commentator Peter Day calls him "one of the great pioneer environmentalists."

Brown is the author or co-author of over 50 books on global environmental issues and his works have been translated into more than forty languages. His most recent book is ''World on the Edge: How to Prevent Environmental and Economic Collapse (2011)''. Brown emphasizes the geopolitical effects of fast-rising grain prices, noting that "the biggest threat to global stability is the potential for food crises in poor countries," and one that could "bring down civilization." In ''Foreign Policy'' magazine, he describes how the "new geopolitics of food" has, in 2011, already begun to contribute to revolutions and upheaval in various countries.

The recipient of 26 honorary degrees and a MacArthur Fellowship, Brown has been described by the ''Washington Post'' as "one of the world's most influential thinkers." As early as 1978, in his book ''The Twenty-Ninth Day'', he was already warning of "the various dangers arising out of our manhandling of nature...by overfishing the oceans, stripping the forests, turning land into desert." In 1986, the Library of Congress requested his personal papers noting that his writings “have already strongly affected thinking about problems of world population and resources,” while president Bill Clinton has suggested that "we should all heed his advice."

In the mid-1970s, Brown helped pioneer the concept of sustainable development, during a career that started with farming. Since then, he has been the recipient of many prizes and awards, including, the 1987 United Nations Environment Prize, the 1989 World Wide Fund for Nature Gold Medal, and the 1994 Blue Planet Prize for his "contributions to solving global environmental problems." In 1995, ''Marquis Who's Who'' selected Brown as one of its "50 Great Americans." He was recently awarded the Presidential Medal of Italy and was appointed an honorary professor at the Chinese Academy of Sciences. He lives in Washington, D.C.

Early life

Brown was born and raised on a farm without running water or electricity in Bridgeton, New Jersey near the Delaware River. He learned to read early and was a voracious reader. He was fascinated by World War II and would borrow day-old papers from the next door farm to follow it. He especially enjoyed reading biographies including those of America’s founding fathers and others such as Abraham Lincoln, George Washington Carver, and Marie Curie. From his earliest years, he worked on the farm, milking cows, pulling weeds, and cleaning the stable. An enterprising youth, he involved his younger brother, Carl, in various businesses, such as growing pheasants and chickens for sale. In 1951, they started a tomato growing business, which eventually grew to become one of New Jersey's largest, with sales of over 1.52 million pounds a year. He later said, "farming is all I ever wanted to do with all my life. You have to know soils, weather, plant pathology, entomology, management, even politics. It's the ideal interdisciplinary profession."

Education

Shortly after earning a degree in agricultural science from Rutgers University in 1955, through the International Farm Youth Exchange Program, he spent six months living in rural India where he became intimately familiar with food and population issues. "His experiences in Indian villages changed his life," wrote biographer David De Leon. "Although he went back to growing tomatoes when he returned to the United States, this no longer seemed like exciting work." ."

Brown decided that to work on the global food issue, he would need to work for the U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS). . He learned that before they would hire him, he needed to have a degree in agricultural economics. Brown took nine months to earn a masters degree in agricultural economics from the University of Maryland] and in 1959 joined FAS as an international agricultural analyst in the Asia branch.[9] A year or so later, he took a nine-month leave to earn a [[Master of Public Administration|public administration from Harvard's John F. Kennedy School of Government.

In 1963, just four years later, he published Man, Land and Food, the first comprehensive projection of world food, population, and land resources to the end of the century. The study was a cover story in January 6, 1963 issue of U.S. News and World Report where it came to the attention of Secretary of Agriculture, Orville Freeman. Freeman appreciated Brown’s bold analysis and offered him a job on his staff, saying "you sketched the problems. Now you have to do something about them." He was soon elevated to being the resident specialist on global issues. In this capacity, he advised the secretary of agriculture on his overseas agricultural policies. He also headed USDA's International Agricultural Development Service from 1966 to 1969. His primary job was to "increase food production in underdeveloped countries."

In early 1969, he left government to help establish the Overseas Development Council. He also became an enthusiastic believer in the promise of a Green Revolution, with the hope of using better seeds and cultivation methods to help solve global problems of poverty and hunger. In his opinion, "this technology was the most crucial historical event since the steam engine." In subsequent years, however, he realized that rapid population growth in undeveloped countries was overwhelming the gains in increased food production.

Career as environmental activist

In 1974, with support of a $500,000 grant from the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, Brown founded the Worldwatch Institute, the first research institute devoted to the analysis of global environmental issues. While there he launched the Worldwatch Papers, the annual State of the World reports, World Watch magazine, a second annual entitled ''Vital Signs: The Trends That are Shaping Our Future'', and the Environmental Alert book series. According to De Leon, "he gathered a staff of young idealists just out of college. They were expected to be 'professional generalists,' rather than narrow specialists with advanced degrees."

The institute eventually became noted for being an independent and respected think tank focusing on environmental issues and also a storehouse for a large amount of environmental information. Their goal is to educate the public and government about environmental problems and to recommend actions. The institute has refused to become a lobbying organization, with Brown saying, "the world is filled with specialists who dig deep burrows into the earth and bring up these nuggets of insight, but there's no one up on top pulling it all together. That's our job." As a result, he has been described as "one of the world's most influential thinkers" and was granted a $250,000 "genius award" by the MacArthur Foundation in 1986.

In 2001, he left Worldwatch Institute to establish the Earth Policy Institute, devoted to providing a plan to save civilization. At the Institute, his years of working on global issues through an interdisciplinary lens has enabled him to identify trends those working in specialized areas might not see. They have also allowed him to consider global solutions to the many environmental concerns of today. Some of the more important works Brown has written at the Institute include ''World on the Edge: How to Prevent Environmental and Economic Collapse'' (2011), ''Eco-Economy: Building an Economy for the Earth'' (2001), and the ''Plan B'' series.

''"Lester Brown is one of the most important voices in the world, regarding the creation of a new conscience of humanity toward a sustainable society."'' -Jose Jaime Maussan

''"Keep up the good work! Some of us are getting in the habit of relying on you all for valuable information and solid analysis."'' –Eric Britton, The New Mobility Agenda

''"…a small think tank with a knack of spotting new trends…"'' –Geoffrey Lean, Telegraph

Primary concerns

The following have been consistent themes in Brown's work over the years:

Population control

Immigration reduction (to achieve U.S. population stabilization)

Global warming

Protection of world's croplands

Soil erosion

Deforestation

Water resources depletion

Melting glaciers

Decreasing groundwaters

Energy depletion

Peak oil

Energy conservation and sustainability

Renewable energy

Garbage reduction and recycling.

Environmentalist and author

Issuing warnings

After a talk at Catawba College in 2008, the college newspaper referred to him as an "environmental Paul Revere," [as] he warned his audience that "unless civilization changes its ways, its end is truly near... we're in a race between natural tipping points and political tipping points, - 'what we need most of all is for the market to tell the environmental truth.' " He added, "We don't need to go beyond our ice melts to know that we're in trouble. How much are we willing to spend to avoid a 23 foot rise in sea level?" He explained that "indirect costs are shaping our future," and by ignoring these, "we're doing exactly the same thing as Enron- leaving costs off the books. Consuming today with no concern for tomorrow is not a winning philosophy." He spoke of rapid population growth, deforestation, and "two new stresses – rising food and oil prices." "As oil prices go up, grain prices will follow," he said.

Offering solutions

In December 2008, Brown presented ways of creating new jobs by public investment in both the renewable energy industry and in energy efficiency technology. He gave growth statistics along with the calculated number of jobs that would be created:

The renewable energy industry - wind, solar, geothermal - are expanding by over 30 percent yearly;

There are now, in the U.S., 24,000 megawatts of wind generating capacity online, but there is "a staggering 225,000 megawatts of "planned wind farms";

Every billion dollars invested in wind farms creates 3,350 jobs - nearly four times the number created from coal plants;

A billion dollars invested in solar creates 1,480 jobs;

What is needed is a World War II-type mobilization to produce electric-powered cars that will operate at an equivalent gas cost of $1 per gallon (Replacing each SUV with a plug-in hybrid could save $20,000 of oil imports over its lifetime);

"The U.S. goal for Detroit should be not merely to save it but make it the world leader...";

A $500 billion dollar investment in clean and renewable energy systems would create 3 million new jobs that would last through 2020;

He notes that "historically, it is rare for so many emerging threats to have a common solution."

Books (selection)

Brown has authored or co-authored over 50 books. One of the world's most widely published authors, his books have appeared in some 40 languages. Among his earlier books are ''Man, Land and Food'', ''World Without Borders'', and ''Building a Sustainable Society''. His 1995 book ''Who Will Feed China?'' challenged the official view of China’s food prospect, spawning hundreds of conferences and seminars. Over the years his books have influenced the thinking and actions of many world leaders.

For example, when asked by ''Wired'' magazine about CNN founder Ted Turner's involvement with his ideas, he replied, "Ted is one of the world's most committed environmentalists. After he read the original ''Plan B'' in 2003, he called and said he wanted to distribute it to the world's key decision makers -- heads of state, cabinet members, Fortune 500 CEOs. He distributed ... 3,569 copies ... with a note saying 'I read this. It's important stuff. You need to read it too.' "

In May 2001, he founded the Earth Policy Institute to provide a vision and a road map for achieving an environmentally sustainable economy. In November 2001, he published ''Eco-Economy: Building an Economy for the Earth'', which was hailed by E.O. Wilson as “an instant classic.” In 2009 he published ''Plan B 4.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization'' and his most recent book is ''World on the Edge'' (2011).

''Who Will Feed China?''

In this book published in 1995, Brown highlights the pressure on world resources as more countries, especially China, become developed. He writes, "To feed its 1.2 billion people, China may soon have to import so much grain that this action could trigger unprecedented rises in world food prices." He explains some of the dilemmas they face: water is becoming scarce; 80 percent of their grain crop requires irrigation; growing cities are erasing cropland for industrialization; food production is stagnating; yet China's population increases "the equivalent of a new Beijing each year."

He describes China's growth and its effect on the world economy: "China's rising food prices will become the world's rising food prices. China's land scarcity will become everyone's land scarcity. And water scarcity will affect the entire world. China's dependence on massive imports, like the collapse of the world's fisheries, will be a wake-up call that we are colliding with the earth's capacity to feed us." One of his conclusions is that the new age of food scarcity "could well lead us to redefine national security away from military preparedness and toward maintaining adequate food supplies."

In the book's foreword, he writes, "Although I was aware that the Chinese were sensitive to the notion that they might need to import large amounts of grain, I had not realized just how sensitive the issue is. All the leaders of China today are survivors of the massive famine that occurred in 1959-1961 in the aftermath of the Great Leap Forward -- a famine that claimed a staggering 30 million lives. If this many died, then as many as a couple hundred million more people could have been on the edge of starvation."

''Outgrowing the Earth''

This book, published in 2004, is a more current description of "the ways in which human demands are outstripping the earth's natural capacities, and how the resulting environmental damage is undermining food production on a global scale." He documents a number of vital changes that are affecting civilization today:

Crop production is suffering "due to global warming." Brown describes how just a few degrees of increased average temperature will lead to a 10 percent decline in grain yields.

Water scarcity and shortages, such as from "aquifer depletion" may be as important as oil depletion. He states, "There are substitutes for oil, but none for water."

Decreasing cropland in key countries like China creates serious dilemmas, "as densely populated countries extend their reliance on automobiles, they pave scarce cropland for roads, highways, and parking lots."

Population growth, while slowing in many countries, is still increasing world population by 76 million each year. Again, he presents another dilemma: "In a world where the historical rise in land productivity has slowed by half since 1990, grain production is falling behind population."

His conclusion is that our "ability to provide enough food is at stake, and depends not only on efforts within agriculture but also having an energy policy that stabilizes climate, a worldwide effort to raise water productivity, the evolution of land-efficient transport systems, and population policies..."

''Plan B 4.0''

''Plan B 4.0 - Mobilizing to Save Civilization'', published in 2009, is a continuation of the critical themes covered by his earlier books. The book is written as a final warning call for the leaders of the world to begin "mobilizing to save civilization" and stresses even more that time is of the essence.

At California State University, Chico, ''Plan B'' has become "required reading for all incoming freshmen." The university says that it is being used in many courses in History, English, Philosophy, Communications, Political and Social Science.

Awards and recognition

Lester Brown is the recipient of many prizes and awards, including 25 honorary degrees, and is an honorary professor of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.

1965 Recipient of Superior Service award, United States Department of Agriculture

1965 Arthur S. Flemming award

1981 A.H. Boerma award, U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization

1982 UN Environmental Program Leadership medal

1985 Lorax award of the Global Tomorrow Coalition

1989 World Wildlife Fund for Nature - International

1987 UN Environmental prize

1991 A. Bizzozero award, University of Parma

1991 Humanist of the Year award

1991 Pro Mundo Habitabili award, King Carl Gustaf XVI, Sweden

1991 Delphi International Cooperation award

1992 Cervia Ambiente prize, Italy

1992 Robert Rodale Lecture award

1993 Certificate of Special Recognition from the Association of American Geographers

1994 Blue Planet prize, Asahi Glass Foundation

1994 J. Sterling Morton Arbor Day award

1995 Public Service award, Federation of American Scientists

1995 Rachel Carson Environmental Achievement award

2000 Bruno H. Schubert Foundation environment award

2001 Natural Business Leadership award

2002 Excellence Advantage award, International Fund for China's Environment

2002 Italian Presidential medal

2003 George and Greta Borgstrom prize, Royal Swedish Academy of Agriculture and Forestry

2005 Claire Matzger Lilienthal Distinguished Lecture award, California Academy of Science

2005, The Works of Lester R. Brown, permanent exhibit, Cook College, Rutgers University

2008, Heifer All-Star (Heifer International Annual Award)

2009, Charles A. and Anne Morrow Lindbergh Award

2010, University of Maryland Alumni Hall of Fame

;Honorable mention

1995 selected: list of 100 people Who Made A Difference by ''The Earth Times''

1998 selected: list of 100 Champions of Conservation, Audubon Society

2000 named one of the People of the Century by ''The Daily Journal'', New Jersey

2003 One of 500 Most Influential People in U.S. Foreign Policy, World Affairs Council of America

2005 One of 30 Global Visionaries by ''PLANET° Magazine''

2005 named to Bridgeton, NJ Distinguished Alumni Hall of Fame

2010 One of top 100 top global thinkers, by ''Foreign Policy magazine'' ;Memberships

Fellow of the World Business Academy

Council of Foreign Relations

World Future Society

Cosmos Club

Sierra Club (advanced council for excellence in environmental engineering)

;Literary Awards

Christopher Award for By Bread Alone

Ecologia Firenze (Italian literary award) for The Twenty-Ninth Day

A.H. Boerma Award, FAO, for writings on the world food problem

Best Translated Book, award from the Ministry of Culture, Iran, for Full House

Top Ten Book award, TheGlobalist.com, for Eco-Economy

Top Ten Book award, TheGlobalist.com, for Plan B

Best Nonfiction Book award from the Peka Institute, Iran, for Eco-Economy

Book of the Week award, TheGlobalist.com, for Outgrowing the Earth

Book of the Month award, Omnipedia, for Plan B

National Library of China book award for Plan B (Chinese edition)

Bibliography

''Man, Land and Food'' (1963)

''Increasing World Food Output'' (1965)

''Seeds of Change'' (1970)

''Man and His Environment: Food (with Gail Finsterbusch)'' (1972)

''World Without Borders'' (1972)

''In the Human Interest'' (1974)

''By Bread Alone'' (with Erik Eckholm) (1974)

''The Twenty-Ninth Day'' (1978)

''Running on Empty'' (with Colin Norman & Christopher Flavin) (1979)

''Building a Sustainable Society'' (1981)

''State of the World'' (with others) (1984–2001)

''Vital Signs'' (with others) (1992–2001)

''Eko Keizai Kakumei: Environmental Trends Reshaping The Global Economy'' (1998) (in Japanese)

''Saving the Planet: How to Shape an Environmentally Sustainable Global Economy'' (with Christopher Flavin & Sandra Postel) (1992)

''Full House: Reassessing the Earth's Population Carrying Capacity'' (with Hal Kane) (1995)

''Who Will Feed China?: Wake-Up Call for a Small Planet'' (1995)

''Tough Choices: Facing the Challenge of Food Scarcity'' (1996)

''Beyond Malthus: Nineteen Dimensions of the Population Challenge (with Gary Gardner and Brian Halweil)'' (1999)

''Eco-Economy: Building an Economy for the Earth'' (2001)

''Earth Policy Reader'' (with Janet Larsen and Bernie Fischlowitz-Roberts) (2002)

''Plan B: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble'' (2003)

''Outgrowing the Earth: The Food Security Challenge in an Age of Falling Water Tables and Rising Temperatures'' (2004)

''Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble'' (2006)

''Plan B 3.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization'' (2008)

''Plan B 4.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization'' (2009)

''World on the Edge: How to Prevent Environmental and Economic Collapse'' (2011)

References

External links

Biography of Lester R. Brown at the Earth Policy Institute

Lester Brown speaking at U.C. Berkeley (video 1 hr. 7 min. video)

Lester Brown Interview about The Water Crisis - MP3

A Conversation With Lester Brown - TreeHuggerTV interview with Lester Brown

"If You Like Challenges, There's No Greater Time to be Alive." - Video interview with Lester Brown, from elephant journal.

Lester R. Brown in Stockholm, May 7th-8th 2010 | YouTube - Videos from Lester Browns visit in Stockholm and the Swedish Plan B, May 2010

;Online books by Lester R. Brown:

''Who Will Feed China?'' (1995); complete book online

''Eco-Economy: Building an Economy for the Earth'' (2001); complete book online (html pages and pdf document)

''Plan B: Rescuing a Planet under Stress & a Civilization in Trouble'' (2003); complete book online (html pages and pdf document)

''Outgrowing the Earth: The Food Security Challenge in an Age of Falling Water Tables and Rising Temperatures'' (2005); complete book online (html pages and pdf document)

''Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet under Stress & a Civilization in Trouble'' (2006); complete book online (html pages and pdf document)

''Plan B 3.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization'' (2008); complete book online (html pages and pdf document)

''Plan B 4.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization'' (2009); complete book online (html pages and pdf document)

''World on the Edge: How to Prevent Environmental and Economic Collapse'' (2011)

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