Coordinates	12°2′36″N77°1′42″N
name	Julius Cæsar’s (1953)
director	Joseph L. Mankiewicz
producer	John Houseman
writer	Joseph L. MankiewiczWilliam Shakespeare
starring	Marlon BrandoJames MasonJohn GielgudLouis CalhernEdmond O'BrienGreer GarsonDeborah Kerr
music	Miklós Rózsa
cinematography	Joseph Ruttenberg
editing	John Dunning
distributor	MGM
released
runtime	121 minutes
country	United States
language	English
gross	}}

''Julius Caesar'' is an 1953 MGM film adaptation of the play by Shakespeare, directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz, who also wrote the uncredited screenplay, and produced by John Houseman. The original music score is by Miklós Rózsa. The film stars Marlon Brando as Mark Antony, James Mason as Brutus, John Gielgud as Cassius, Louis Calhern as Julius Caesar, Edmond O'Brien as Casca, Greer Garson as Calpurnia, and Deborah Kerr as Portia.

Casting

Many of the actors connected with this film had previous experience with the play. John Gielgud had played Mark Antony at the Old Vic Theatre in 1930 and Cassius at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1950, James Mason had played Brutus at the Abbey Theatre in Dublin in the 1940s, and John Hoyt, who plays Decius Brutus, also played him in the 1937 stage version. Gielgud later played the title role in the 1970 film with Charlton Heston, Jason Robards and Richard Johnson (as Cassius) and in a stage production directed by John Schlesinger at the Royal National Theatre. John Houseman, who had produced the famous 1937 Broadway version of the play starring Orson Welles and the Mercury Theatre, also produced the MGM film. By this time, however, Welles and Houseman had had a falling out, and Welles had nothing to do with the 1953 film. P. M. Pasinetti, Italian-American writer, scholar, and teacher at UCLA served as a technical advisor.

Brando's casting was met with some skepticism when it was announced, as he had acquired the nickname of "The Mumbler" following his performance in ''A Streetcar Named Desire'' (1951). Director Joseph L. Mankiewicz even considered Paul Scofield for the role of Marc Antony if Brando's screen test was unsuccessful, but he was so dedicated in his performance during shooting that John Gielgud offered to direct him in a stage production of ''Hamlet,'' a proposition that Brando turned down.

O.Z. Whitehead is listed on the Internet Movie Database as having played Cinna the Poet in the film and not receiving screen credit, but his one scene was deleted before release, and it is not included in any DVD or video releases of the film. (However, Cinna the Conspirator does appear; he is played by actor William Cottrell - not to be confused with the William Cottrell who was recently convicted of a crime.)

Cast

Marlon Brando as Mark Antony

James Mason as Brutus

John Gielgud as Cassius

Louis Calhern as Julius Caesar

Edmond O'Brien as Casca

Greer Garson as Calpurnia

Deborah Kerr as Portia

George Macready as Marullus

Michael Pate as Flavius

Richard Hale as Soothsayer

Alan Napier as Cicero

John Hoyt as Decius Brutus

Tom Powers as Metellus Cimber

William Cottrell as Cinna

Jack Raine as Trebonius

Ian Wolfe as Ligarius

Morgan Farley as Artemidorus

William Phipps as Servant to Antony (as Bill Phipps)

Douglass Watson as Octavius Caesar (as Douglas Watson)

Douglass Dumbrille as Lepidus

Rhys Williams as Lucilius

Michael Ansara as Pindarus

Dayton Lummis as Messala

Edmund Purdom as Strato

Lawrence Dobkin as Citizen of Rome

Jo Gilbert as Citizen of Rome

John Hardy as Lucius

Chet Stratton as Servant to Caesar (as Chester Stratton)

Lumsden Hare as Publius

Preston Hanson as Claudius

Victor Perry as Popilius Lena

Michael Tolan as Officer to Octavius

John Lupton as Varro

Joseph Waring as Clitus (as Joe Waring)

John Parrish as Titinius

Stephen Roberts as Dardanius

Awards and nominations

The film won the Academy Award for Best Art Direction (Cedric Gibbons, Edward Carfagno, Edwin B. Willis, Hugh Hunt), and was nominated for the Best Actor in a Leading Role (Marlon Brando), Best Cinematography, Black-and-White, Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture and Best Picture. Brando's nomination was the third time in three consecutive years that he was nominated for the Best Actor Academy Award. He was nominated in 1951 for ''A Streetcar Named Desire'' and in 1952 for ''Viva Zapata!''. He would win the following year for ''On the Waterfront''.

It also won two BAFTA awards for Best British Actor (John Gielgud) and Best Foreign Actor (Marlon Brando). It was also nominated in the Best Film category. Brando won the BAFTA Best Actor award in three consecutive years for ''Viva Zapata!'' (1952), ''Julius Caesar'' (1953), and ''On the Waterfront'' (1954).

It won the Best Film and Best Actor Award for James Mason from The National Board of Review.

Miscellany

In the scenes set at Brutus's house, a bust of the Emperor Hadrian — who was not born for another 120 years — gazes down at the proceedings.

See also

List of historical drama films

List of films set in ancient Rome

References

External links

Category:1953 films Category:American films Category:Black-and-white films Category:Epic films Category:Films based on actual events Category:Films based on Julius Caesar (play) Category:Films directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz Category:Films set in ancient Rome Category:Films whose art director won the Best Art Direction Academy Award Category:Films set in the 1st century BC Category:Golden Leopard winners Category:Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films Category:1950s drama films Category:Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar

ca:Julius Caesar (pel·lícula) de:Julius Caesar (1953) es:Julio César (película de 1953) fr:Jules César (film) it:Giulio Cesare (film 1953) nl:Julius Caesar (1953) ja:ジュリアス・シーザー (1953年の映画) pl:Juliusz Cezar (film) ru:Юлий Цезарь (фильм, 1953) sr:Јулије Цезар (филм из 1953) fi:Julius Caesar (vuoden 1953 elokuva)

Coordinates	12°2′36″N77°1′42″N
Name	Gaius Julius Caesar
Title	Dictator of the Roman Republic
Full name	Gaius Julius Caesar
Reign	October 49 BC –15 March 44 BC (as dictator and/or consul)
Consort	Cornelia Cinna minor 84 – 68 BC Pompeia 68 – 63 BC Calpurnia Pisonis 59 – 44 BC
Issue	Julia Caesaris 85/84 – 54 BCCaesarion 47 – 30 BCAugustus 63 BC – 14 AD (grand-nephew, posthumously adopted as Caesar's son in 44 BC)
Royal house	Julio-Claudian
Father	Gaius Julius Cæsar
Mother	Aurelia Cotta
Birth date	13 July 100 BC
Birth place	Subura, Rome
Death date	15 March 44 BC (aged 55)
Death place	Curia of Pompey, Rome
Place of burial	}}

Gaius Julius Caesar (13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.

In 60 BC, Caesar entered into a political alliance with Crassus and Pompey that was to dominate Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to amass power through populist tactics were opposed within the Roman Senate by the conservative elite, among them Cato the Younger with the frequent support of Cicero. Caesar's conquest of Gaul, completed by 51 BC, extended Rome's territory to the English Channel and the Rhine. Caesar became the first Roman general to cross both when he built a bridge across the Rhine and conducted the first invasion of Britain. These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse Pompey's standing. The balance of power was further upset by the death of Crassus in 53 BC. Political realignments in Rome finally led to a standoff between Caesar and Pompey, the latter having taken up the cause of the Senate. Ordered by the senate to stand trial in Rome for various charges, Caesar marched from Gaul to Italy with his legions, crossing the Rubicon in 49 BC. This sparked a civil war from which he emerged as the unrivaled leader of the Roman world.

After assuming control of government, he began extensive reforms of Roman society and government. He centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed "dictator in perpetuity". A group of senators, led by Marcus Junius Brutus, assassinated the dictator on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC, hoping to restore the constitutional government of the Republic. However, the result was a series of civil wars, which ultimately led to the establishment of the permanent Roman Empire by Caesar's adopted heir Octavius (later known as Augustus). Much of Caesar's life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns, and other contemporary sources, mainly the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust. The later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also major sources.

Early life and career

Caesar was born into a patrician family, the ''gens Julia'', which claimed descent from Iulus, son of the legendary Trojan prince Aeneas, supposedly the son of the goddess Venus. The ''cognomen'' "Caesar" originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by caesarean section (from the Latin verb to cut, ''caedere'', ''caes-''). The ''Historia Augusta'' suggests three alternative explanations: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin ''caesaries''); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin ''oculis caesiis''); or that he killed an elephant (''caesai'' in Moorish) in battle. Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favoured this interpretation of his name. Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential. Caesar's father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar, governed the province of Asia, while his mother, Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family. Little is recorded of Caesar's childhood. Caesar's formative years were a time of turmoil. There were several wars from 91 BC to 82 BC, although from 82 BC to 80 BC, the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla was purging Rome of his political enemies. Domestically, Roman politics was bitterly divided. In 85 BC Caesar's father died suddenly so at sixteen Caesar was the head of the family. The following year he was nominated to be the new high priest of Jupiter. Since the holder of that position not only had to be a patrician but also be married to a patrician, he broke off his engagement to a plebeian girl he had been betrothed to since boyhood, and married Lucius Cinna's daughter Cornelia. Then, having brought Mithridates to terms, Sulla returned to Rome and had himself appointed to the revived office of dictator. Sulla's proscriptions saw hundreds of his political enemies killed or exiled. Caesar, as the nephew of Marius and son-in-law of Cinna, was targeted. He was stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry and his priesthood, but he refused to divorce Cornelia and was forced to go into hiding. The threat against him was lifted by the intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of Sulla, and the Vestal Virgins. Sulla gave in reluctantly, and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar.

Caesar left Rome and joined the army, where he won the Civic Crown for his part in an important siege. On a mission to Bithynia to secure the assistance of King Nicomedes's fleet, he spent so long at his court that rumours of an affair with the king arose, which Caesar would vehemently deny for the rest of his life. Ironically, the loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career: the high priest of Jupiter was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army. Hearing of Sulla's death in 78 BC, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome. Lacking means since his inheritance was confiscated, he acquired a modest house in a lower-class neighbourhood of Rome. Instead, he turned to legal advocacy. He became known for his exceptional oratory, accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for extortion and corruption.

On the way across the Aegean Sea, Caesar was kidnapped by pirates and held prisoner. He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. When the pirates thought to demand a ransom of twenty talents of silver, he insisted they ask for fifty. After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them. He had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised while in captivity—a promise the pirates had taken as a joke. As a sign of leniency, he first had their throats cut. He was soon called back into military action in Asia, raising a band of auxiliaries to repel an incursion from the east.

On his return to Rome, he was elected military tribune, a first step in a political career. He was elected quaestor for 69 BC, and during that year he delivered the funeral oration for his aunt Julia. His wife, Cornelia, also died that year. After her funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC, Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Spain. While there he is said to have encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realized with dissatisfaction he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. On his return in 67 BC, he married Pompeia, a granddaughter of Sulla, and whom he later divorced. In 63 BC, he ran for election to the post of Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the Roman state religion. He ran against two powerful senators. There were accusations of bribery by all sides. Caesar won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing. When Cicero, who was consul that year, exposed Catiline's conspiracy to seize control of the republic, several senators accused Caesar of involvement in the plot.

After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern Spain, but he was still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. He turned to Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of Rome's richest men. In return for political support in his opposition to the interests of Pompey, Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others. Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and open to prosecution for his debts, Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended. In Spain, he conquered two local tribes and was hailed as ''imperator'' by his troops, reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem. As ''imperator'', Caesar was entitled to a triumph. However, he also wanted to stand for consul, the most senior magistracy in the republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his command and enter Rome as a private citizen. He could not do both in the time available. He asked the senate for permission to stand ''in absentia'', but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship.

Consulship and military campaigns

In 60 BC, Caesar sought election as consul for 59 BC. Two other candidates stood for the consulship, and the election was dirty. Even Cato, with his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in favor of one of Caesar's opponents. Caesar won, along with conservative Marcus Bibulus. Caesar was already in Crassus' political debt, but he also made overtures to Pompey. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds for a decade, so Caesar tried to reconcile them. Between the three of them, they had enough money and political influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the First Triumvirate (rule of three men), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter Julia. Caesar also married again, this time Calpurnia, who was the daughter of another powerful senator.

Caesar proposed a law for the redistribution of public lands to the poor, a proposal supported by Pompey, by force of arms if need be, and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with soldiers, and the triumvirate's opponents were intimidated. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavorable and thus void the new law, but was driven from the forum by Caesar's armed supporters. His bodyguards had their ceremonial axes broken, two high magistrates accompanying him were wounded, and Bibulus had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts to obstruct Caesar's legislation proved ineffective. Roman satirists ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar".

When Caesar was first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit his future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than the governorship of a province, as his military command duty after his year in office was over. With the help of political allies, Caesar later had this overturned, and was instead appointed to govern Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy) and Illyricum (southeastern Europe), with Transalpine Gaul (southern France) later added, giving him command of four legions. The term of his governorship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one. When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province.

Conquest of Gaul

Caesar was still deeply in debt, and there was money to be made as a governor, whether by extortion or by military adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces bordered on unconquered territory, and parts of Gaul were known to be unstable. Some of Rome's Gallic allies had been defeated by their rivals, with the help of a contingent of Germanic tribes. The Romans feared these tribes were preparing to migrate south, closer to Italy, and that they had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated these tribes.

In response to Caesar's earlier activities, the tribes in the north-east began to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an aggressive move, and, after an inconclusive engagement against the united tribes, he conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one of his legions began the conquest of the tribes in the far north (directly opposite Britain). During the spring of 56 BC, the Triumvirate held a conference, as Rome was in turmoil and Caesar's political alliance was coming undone. The meeting renewed the Triumvirate and extended Caesar's governorship for another five years. The conquest of the north was soon completed, while a few pockets of resistance remained. Caesar now had a secure base from which to launch an invasion of Britain. In 55 BC Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by two Germanic tribes, and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued two other tribes, he crossed into Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided one of his enemies the previous year. His intelligence information was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the coast, he could not advance further, and returned to Gaul for the winter. He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, and established a few alliances. However, poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, which forced Caesar to leave Britain for the last time.

While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar tried to re-secure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece in marriage, but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed invasion of the east. Rome was on the edge of civil war. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married the daughter of a political opponent of Caesar. The Triumvirate was dead.

In 52 BC another, larger revolt erupted in Gaul, led by Vercingetorix. Vercingetorix managed to unite the Gallic tribes and proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar in several engagements, but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the Battle of Alesia finally forced his surrender. Despite scattered outbreaks of warfare the following year, Gaul was effectively conquered. Plutarch claimed that the army had fought against three million men during the Gallic Wars, of whom 1 million died, and another million were enslaved. The Romans subjugated 300 tribes and destroyed 800 cities. However, in view of the difficulty in finding accurate counts in the first place, Caesar's propagandistic purposes, and the common exaggeration of numbers in ancient texts, the stated totals of enemy combatants are likely to be too high.

Civil war

In 50 BC, the Senate, led by Pompey, ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as governor had finished. Caesar thought he would be prosecuted if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a magistrate. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason. In January 49 BC, Caesar crossed the Rubicon river (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only one legion and ignited civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwright Menander, in Greek, "the die is cast". Erasmus, however, notes that the more accurate translation of the Greek imperative mood would be "alea icta esto" ''let'' the die be cast. Pompey and much of the senate fled to the south, having little confidence in his newly raised troops. Despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who only had his Thirteenth Legion with him, Pompey did not intend to fight. Caesar pursued Pompey, hoping to capture him before his legions could escape. Pompey managed to escape before Caesar could capture him. Caesar decided to head for Spain, while leaving Italy under the control of Mark Antony. Caesar made an astonishing 27-day route-march to Spain, where he defeated Pompey's lieutenants. He then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Greece where in July 48 BC at Dyrrhachium Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat. He decisively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus in an exceedingly short engagement later that year.

In Rome, Caesar was appointed dictator, with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse (second in command); Caesar presided over his own election to a second consulship and then, after eleven days, resigned this dictatorship. Caesar then pursued Pompey to Egypt, where Pompey was soon murdered. Caesar then became involved with an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, Cleopatra. Perhaps as a result of the pharaoh's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which was offered to him by the pharaoh as a gift. In any event, Caesar defeated the pharaoh's forces in 47 BC and installed Cleopatra as ruler. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory with a triumphant procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 BC. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, introducing Caesar to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs. Caesar and Cleopatra never married, as Roman law recognized marriages only between two Roman citizens. Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, which lasted 14 years – in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery – and may have fathered a son called Caesarion. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber.

Late in 48 BC, Caesar was again appointed Dictator, with a term of one year. After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East, where he annihilated the king of Pontus; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies. Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He quickly gained a significant victory in 46 BC over Cato, who then committed suicide. After this victory, he was appointed Dictator for ten years. Nevertheless, Pompey's sons escaped to Spain. Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Battle of Munda in March 45 BC. During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC and 45 BC (this last time without a colleague).

Dictatorship and assassination

While he was still campaigning in Spain, the Senate began bestowing honors on Caesar. Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition to him. Great games and celebrations were held in April to honor Caesar’s victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following Caesar's victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners, but instead fellow Romans. On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will, naming his grandnephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian) as the heir to everything, including his name. Caesar also wrote that if Octavian died before Caesar did, Marcus Junius Brutus would be the next heir in succession.

During his early career, Caesar had seen how chaotic and dysfunctional the Roman Republic had become. The republican machinery had broken down under the weight of imperialism, the central government had become powerless, the provinces had been transformed into independent principalities under the absolute control of their governors, and the army had replaced the constitution as the means of accomplishing political goals. With a weak central government, political corruption had spiraled out of control, and the status quo had been maintained by a corrupt aristocracy, which saw no need to change a system that had made its members rich.

Between his crossing of the Rubicon River in 49 BC, and his assassination in 44 BC, Caesar established a new constitution, which was intended to accomplish three separate goals. First, he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces, and thus bring order back to the empire. Second, he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome. Finally, he wanted to knit together the entire empire into a single cohesive unit. and so he assumed these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions. Finally, he enacted a series of reforms that were meant to address several long neglected issues, the most important of which was his reform of the calendar.

Dictatorship

When Caesar returned to Rome, the Senate granted him triumphs for his victories, ostensibly over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces and Juba, rather than over his Roman opponents. Not everything went Caesar's way. When Arsinoe IV, Egypt's former queen, was paraded in chains, the spectators admired her dignified bearing and were moved to pity. Triumphal games were held, with beast-hunts involving 400 lions, and gladiator contests. A naval battle was held on a flooded basin at the Field of Mars. At the Circus Maximus, two armies of war captives, each of 2,000 people, 200 horse and 20 elephants, fought to the death. Again, some bystanders complained, this time at Caesar's wasteful extravagance. A riot broke out, and only stopped when Caesar had two rioters sacrificed by the priests on the Field of Mars.

When the triumph was over, Caesar set forth to passing an unprecedented legislative agenda. He ordered a census be taken, which forced a reduction in the grain dole. Then he mandated that jurors could only come from the senate or the equestrian ranks. Next, he passed a sumptuary law that restricted the purchase of certain luxuries. After this, he passed a law that rewarded families for having many children, to speed along the repopulation of Italy. Then he passed a law that outlawed professional guilds, except those of ancient foundation, since many of these were subversive political clubs. He then passed a term limit law applicable to governors. He passed a debt restructuring law, which ultimately eliminated about a fourth of all debts owed. The Forum of Caesar, with its Temple of Venus Genetrix, was then built among many other public works. Caesar also tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidised grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fixed number, all of whom were entered into a special register. From 47 to 44 BC he made plans for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans. The most important change, however, was his reform of the calendar. The calendar at the time was regulated by the movement of the moon, and this had resulted in a great deal of disorder. Caesar replaced this calendar with the Egyptian calendar, which was regulated by the sun. He set the length of the year to 365.25 days by adding an intercalary/leap day at the end of February every fourth year. To bring the calendar into alignment with the seasons, he decreed that three extra months be inserted into 46 BC (the ordinary intercalary month at the end of February, and two extra months after November). Thus, the Julian calendar opened on 1 January 45 BC. This calendar is almost identical to the current Western calendar.

Shortly before his assassination, he passed a few more reforms. He established a police force, appointed officials to carry out his land reforms, and ordered the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth. He also extended Latin rights throughout the Roman world, and then abolished the tax system and reverted to the earlier version that allowed cities to collect tribute however they wanted, rather than needing Roman intermediaries. His assassination prevented further and larger schemes. He wanted to build an unprecedented temple to Mars, a huge theater, and a library on the scale of the Library of Alexandria. He also wanted to convert Ostia to a major port, and cut a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth. Militarily, he wanted to conquer the Dacians, Parthians, and avenge the loss at Carrhae. Thus, he instituted a massive mobilization. Shortly before his assassination, the senate named him censor for life and Father of the Fatherland, and the month of Quintilis was renamed July in his honor. He was granted further honors, which were later used to justify his assassination as a would-be divine monarch; coins were issued bearing his image and his statue was placed next to those of the kings. He was granted a golden chair in the senate house, allowed to wear triumphal dress whenever he chose, and was offered a form of semi-official or popular cult, with Mark Antony as his high priest.

Political reforms

The history of Caesar's political appointments is complex and uncertain. Caesar held both the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternated between the consulship and the Proconsulship. mostly because Caesar was frequently out of Italy. In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers, which made his person sacrosanct and allowed him to veto the senate, To minimize the risk that another general might attempt to challenge him,

According to Plutarch, as Caesar arrived at the Senate, Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother. The other conspirators crowded round to offer support. Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar waved him away, but Cimber grabbed his shoulders and pulled down Caesar's tunic. Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("''Ista quidem vis est!''"). At the same time, Casca produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?" Casca, frightened, shouted, "Help, brother!" in Greek ("", "''adelphe, boethei!''"). Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico. According to Eutropius, around 60 or more men participated in the assassination. He was stabbed 23 times. According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal. The dictator's last words are not known with certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike. Suetonius reports that others have said Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase "" (transliterated as "''Kai su, teknon?''": "You too, child?" in English). However, Suetonius says Caesar said nothing. Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators. The version best known in the English-speaking world is the Latin phrase "''Et tu, Brute?''" ("And you, Brutus?", commonly rendered as "You too, Brutus?"); this derives from Shakespeare's ''Julius Caesar'', where it actually forms the first half of a macaronic line: "''Et tu, Brute?'' Then fall, Caesar." It has no basis in historical fact and Shakespeare's use of Latin here is not from any assertion that Caesar would have been using the language, rather than the Greek reported by Suetonius, but because the phrase was already popular when the play was written. According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators; they, however, fled the building. Brutus and his companions then marched to the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city: "People of Rome, we are once again free!" They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumour of what had taken place had begun to spread. Caesar's dead body lay where it fell on the Senate floor for nearly three hours before other officials arrived to remove it.

A lifesize wax statue of Caesar was later erected in the forum displaying the 23 stab wounds. A crowd who had gathered there started a fire, which badly damaged the forum and neighbouring buildings. In the ensuing chaos Mark Antony, Octavian (later Augustus Caesar), and others fought a series of five civil wars, which would end in the formation of the Roman Empire.

Aftermath of the assassination

The result unforeseen by the assassins was that Caesar's death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic. The Roman middle and lower classes, with whom Caesar was immensely popular and had been since before Gaul, became enraged that a small group of aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony, who had been drifting apart from Caesar, capitalised on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the Optimates, perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself. However, to his surprise and chagrin, Caesar had named his grandnephew Gaius Octavian his sole heir, bequeathing him the immensely potent Caesar name and making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic. The crowd at the funeral boiled over, throwing dry branches, furniture and even clothing on to Caesar's funeral pyre, causing the flames to spin out of control, seriously damaging the Forum. The mob then attacked the houses of Brutus and Cassius, where they were repelled only with considerable difficulty, ultimately providing the spark for the Liberators' civil war, fulfilling at least in part Antony's threat against the aristocrats. However, Antony did not foresee the ultimate outcome of the next series of civil wars, particularly with regard to Caesar's adopted heir. Octavian, aged only 18 when Caesar died, proved to have considerable political skills, and while Antony dealt with Decimus Brutus in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position. To combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the cash from Caesar's war chests, and the legitimacy that Caesar's name would provide for any action he took against them. With the passage of the ''lex Titia'' on 27 November 43 BC, the Second Triumvirate was officially formed, composed of Antony, Octavian, and Caesar's loyal cavalry commander Lepidus. It formally deified Caesar as Divus Iulius in 42 BC, and Caesar Octavian henceforth became ''Divi filius'' ("Son of a god"). Because Caesar's clemency had resulted in his murder, the Second Triumvirate brought back the practice of proscription, abandoned since Sulla. It engaged in the legally sanctioned murder of a large number of its opponents to secure funding for its forty-five legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius. Antony and Octavius defeated them at Philippi. Afterward, Mark Antony married Caesar's lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome. A third civil war broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other. This final civil war, culminating in the latter's defeat at Actium, resulted in the permanent ascendancy of Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor, under the name Caesar Augustus, a name that raised him to the status of a deity.

Julius Caesar had been preparing to invade Parthia, the Caucasus and Scythia, and then march back to Germania through Eastern Europe. These plans were thwarted by his assassination. His successors did attempt the conquests of Parthia and Germania, but without lasting results.

Julius Caesar was the first historical Roman to be officially deified. He was posthumously granted the title ''Divus Iulius'' or ''Divus Julius'' (the divine Julius or the deified Julius) by decree of the Roman Senate on 1 January 42 BC. Though his temple was not dedicated until after his death, he may have received divine honours during his lifetime: and shortly before his assassination, Mark Antony had been appointed as his ''flamen'' (priest). Both Octavian and Mark Antony promoted the cult of Divus Iulius. After the death of Antony, Octavian, as the adoptive son of Caesar, assumed the title of ''Divi Filius'' (son of a god).

Personal life

Health and physical appearance

Based on remarks by Plutarch, Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy. Modern scholarship is "sharply divided" on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s. Despite the commonly held belief that Caesar suffered from epilepsy, several specialists in headache medicine believe that a more accurate diagnosis would be migraine headache.

Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have had absence seizures in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures.

In 2003, psychiatrist Harbour F. Hodder published what he termed as the "Caesar Complex" theory, arguing that Caesar was a sufferer of temporal lobe epilepsy and the debilitating symptoms of the condition were a factor in Caesar's conscious decision to forgo personal safety in the days leading up to his assassination.

A line from Shakespeare has sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: ''Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf''. No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defense.

The Roman historian Suetonius describes Caesar as "tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes."

Name and family

Using the Latin alphabet as it existed in the day of Caesar (i.e., without lower case letters, "J", or "U"), Caesar's name would be rendered "GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR"; the form "CAIVS" is also attested, using the old Roman representation of G by C; it is an antique form of the more common "GAIVS". The standard abbreviation was, and this is not archaic, "C. IVLIVS CAESAR". (The letterform "Æ" is a ligature, which is often encountered in Latin inscriptions where it was used to save space, and is nothing more than the letters "ae".) In Classical Latin, it was pronounced . In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, Brutus. In Greek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written ''Καίσαρ'', reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German Kaiser. In Vulgar Latin, the plosive /k/ before front vowels began, due to palatalization, to be pronounced as an affricate – hence renderings like in Italian and in German regional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title of Tsar. With the evolution of the Romance languages, the affricate [ts] became a fricative [s] (thus, ) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. The original /k/ is preserved in Norse mythology, where he is manifested as the legendary king Kjárr.

Caesar's cognomen would itself become a title; it was greatly promulgated by the Bible, by the famous verse "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's". The title became the German Kaiser and Slavic Tsar/Czar. The last tsar in nominal power was Simeon II of Bulgaria whose reign ended in 1946; for two thousand years after Julius Caesar's assassination, there was at least one head of state bearing his name.

Parents

Father Gaius Julius Caesar the Elder

Mother Aurelia (related to the Aurelii Cottae)

Sisters

Julia Caesaris "Maior" (the elder)

Julia Caesaris "Minor" (the younger)

Wives

First marriage to Cornelia Cinnilla, from 83 BC until her death in childbirth in 69 or 68 BC

Second marriage to Pompeia, from 67 BC until he divorced her around 61 BC

Third marriage to Calpurnia Pisonis, from 59 BC until Caesar's death

Children

Julia with Cornelia Cinnilla, born in 83 or 82 BC

Caesarion, with Cleopatra VII, born 47 BC. He was killed at age 17 by Caesar's adopted son Octavianus.

''adopted'': Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, his great-nephew by blood, who later became Emperor Augustus.

Marcus Junius Brutus: The historian Plutarch notes that Caesar believed Brutus to have been his illegitimate son, as his mother Servilia had been Caesar's lover during their youth.

Grandchildren

Grandson from Julia and Pompey, dead at several days, unnamed.

Lovers

Cleopatra VII mother of Caesarion

Servilia Caepionis mother of Brutus

Eunoë, queen of Mauretania and wife of Bogudes

Notable relatives

Gaius Marius (married to his Aunt Julia)

Mark Antony

Lucius Julius Caesar

Julius Sabinus, a Gaul of the Lingones at the time of the Batavian rebellion of AD 69, claimed to be the great-grandson of Caesar on the grounds that his great-grandmother had been Caesar's lover during the Gallic war.

Political rumors

Roman society viewed the passive role during sexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, "Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar." According to Cicero, Bibulus, Gaius Memmius, and others (mainly Caesar's enemies), he had an affair with Nicomedes IV of Bithynia early in his career. The tales were repeated, referring to Caesar as the Queen of Bithynia, by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. It is very likely that the rumours were spread only as a form of character assassination; Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according to Cassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion. This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. A favorite tactic used by the opposition was to accuse a popular political rival as living a Hellenistic lifestyle based on Greek and Eastern culture, where homosexuality and a lavish lifestyle were more acceptable than in Roman tradition.

Catullus wrote two poems suggesting that Caesar and his engineer Mamurra were lovers, but later apologised.

Mark Antony charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as political slander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor.

Literary works

Caesar was considered during his lifetime to be one of the best orators and authors of prose in Rome—even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style. Among his most famous works were his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his ''Anticato'', a document written to blacken Cato's reputation and respond to Cicero's ''Cato'' memorial. Poems by Caesar are also mentioned in ancient sources. His works other than his war commentaries have been lost, although a few sentences are quoted by other authors.

Memoirs

The ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico'' (''Commentaries on the Gallic War''), campaigns in Gallia and Britannia during his term as proconsul; and

The ''Commentarii de Bello Civili'' (''Commentaries on the Civil War''), events of the Civil War until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt.

Other works historically attributed to Caesar, but whose authorship is doubted, are:

''De Bello Alexandrino'' (''On the Alexandrine War''), campaign in Alexandria;

''De Bello Africo'' (''On the African War''), campaigns in North Africa; and

''De Bello Hispaniensi'' (''On the Hispanic War''), campaigns in the Iberian peninsula.

These narratives were written and published on a yearly basis during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front". Apparently simple and direct in style—to the point that Caesar's ''Commentarii'' are commonly studied by first and second year Latin students—they are in fact highly sophisticated tracts, aimed most particularly at the middle-brow readership of minor aristocrats in Rome, Italy, and the provinces.

Legend and legacy

In the Middle Ages Caesar was created a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes encapsulating all the ideal qualities of chivalry.

Chronology of his life

Depictions

''For the marble bust from Arles discovered in 2007–8 alleged to be Caesar's likeness, and the ensuing controversy, see Arles portrait bust.''

See also

Comet Caesar

''Emperor: Young Caesar'' (film)

References

Primary sources

Own writings

Forum Romanum Index to Caesar's works online in Latin and translation

omnia munda mundis Hypertext of Caesar's De Bello Gallico

Ancient historians' writings

Appian, Book 13 (English translation)

Cassius Dio, Books 37–44 (English translation)

Plutarch on Antony (English translation, Dryden edition)

Plutarch: The Life of Julius Caesar (English translation)

Plutarch: The Life of Mark Antony (English translation)

Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar. (Latin and English, cross-linked: the English translation by J. C. Rolfe)

Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar (J. C. Rolfe English translation, modified)

Secondary sources

External links

C. Julius Caesar Jona Lendering's in‑depth history of Caesar (Livius. Org)

Guide to online resources

History of Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar at BBC History

Grey, D. The Assassination of Caesar, Clio History Journal, 2009.

Succession table

Caesar was acclaimed ''Imperator'' in 60 and 45 BC. In the Roman Republic, this was an honorary title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, an army's troops in the field would proclaim their commander ''imperator'', an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the Senate for a triumph. After being acclaimed ''imperator'', the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his triumph, where he would relinquish the title as well as his imperium.

Category:100 BC births Category:44 BC deaths Category:Ancient Roman generals Category:Ancient Roman politicians Category:Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid Category:Correspondents of Cicero Category:Deaths by stabbing Category:Golden Age Latin writers Category:Iulii Category:Latin-language writers Category:Ancient Roman writers Category:People from Rome (city) Category:Republican holders of the role of pontifex maximus Category:Roman military writers Category:Roman Republican consuls Category:Roman governors of Hispania Category:Assassinated military personnel Category:1st-century BC Romans Category:1st-century BC clergy Category:1st-century BC writers Category:1st-century BC historians Category:1st-century BC rulers Category:Assassinated Roman politicians Category:Assassinated heads of state Category:Ancient Roman dictators Category:Deified people

rue:Юлій Цезар

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Coordinates	12°2′36″N77°1′42″N
Name	LegatusMarcus AntoniusM·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N
Birth date	January 14, 83 BC
Death date	August 1, 30 BC (aged 53)
Birth place	Rome, Roman Republic
Death place	Alexandria, Ptolemaic Kingdom
Allegiance
Serviceyears	54–30 BC
Rank	General
Commands	Roman army
Battles	Gallic Wars Caesar's civil warBattle of PharsalusRoman-Parthian WarsAntony's war on ParthiaPost-Caesarian civil warBattle of Mutina Liberators' civil warBattle of PhilippiFinal War of the Roman RepublicBattle of Actium
Laterwork	Consul of the Roman Republic 44BC and 34BC, Master of the Horse, Quaestor, Augur, Tribune }}

Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N) (January 14, 83 BC – August 1, 30 BC), known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and general. As a military commander and administrator, he was an important supporter and loyal friend of Julius Caesar. After Caesar's assassination, Antony formed an official political alliance with Octavian (the future Augustus) and Lepidus, known to historians today as the Second Triumvirate.

The triumvirate broke up in 33 BC. Disagreement between Octavian and Antony erupted into civil war, the final war of the Roman Republic, in 31 BC. Antony was defeated by Octavian at the naval Battle of Actium, and in a brief land battle at Alexandria. He and his lover Cleopatra committed suicide shortly thereafter. His career and defeat are significant in Rome's transformation from Republic to Empire.

Biography

Early life

A member of the Antonia clan (''gens''), Antony was born in the winter of 87-6 BC, or as late as 83, based on Plutarch's record of two traditions of his age at the time of his death in 30 BC. The day and month of his birth are securely attested as 14 January. He was the homonymous and thus presumably the eldest son of Marcus Antonius Creticus (praetor 74 BC), grandson of the great Marcus Antonius Orator (consul 99 BC, censor 97-6 BC) who had been murdered and decapitated in the Marian Terror of winter 87-6 BC.

His mother Julia was a daughter of Lucius Caesar (consul 90 BC, censor 89 BC), another Marian victim murdered with Antonius Orator. His father died in 71 BC during his command against Mediterranean piracy, and Julia remarried to Publius Cornelius Lentulus (Sura) (consul 71 BC), an eminent patrician politician and co-leader of the infamous Conspiracy of Catiline named after the latter. He had two younger brothers, Gaius (praetor 44 BC, born c.84 BC) and Lucius (quaestor 50 BC, consul 41 BC, born 81 BC or earlier). The incompatibility of their birth dates with an eldest brother born in 83 BC indicates that the tradition making Antony 53 years of age at his death was the false one.

According to authorities like Plutarch, he spent his youth wandering the streets of Rome with his brothers and friends, most notably Gaius Scribonius Curio (the later tribune 50 BC), with whom he is said to have had a long-term homosexual liaison, and whose wife Fulvia he took as his own a year or so after Curio's death in 49 BC. Plutarch writes that before Antony reached 20 years of age, he was already indebted to the sum of 250 talents. (About $5 million in today's money.)

After this period of recklessness, Antony fled to Greece to escape his creditors and to study rhetoric. After a short time spent in attendance on the philosophers at Athens, he was summoned by Aulus Gabinius, proconsul of Syria, to take part in the campaigns against Aristobulus II in Judea, and in support of King Ptolemy XII Auletes in Egypt. In the ensuing campaign, he demonstrated his talents as a cavalry commander and distinguished himself for his vigour and bravery. Antony's life was a mixture of astounding military valour along with equally astounding debauchery. In a similar vein, Plutarch noted that while his generosity helped raise him to the heights of power, he was equally hindered by his countless faults.

Supporter of Caesar

In 54 BC, Antony became a staff officer in Caesar's armies in Gaul and Germany. He again proved to be a competent military leader in the Gallic Wars, but his personality quirks caused disruption. Antony and Caesar were best of friends as well, as being fairly close relatives. Antony made himself ever available to assist Caesar in carrying out his military campaigns.

Raised by Caesar's influence to the offices of quaestor, augur, and tribune of the plebeians (50 BC), he supported the cause of his patron with great energy. Caesar's two proconsular commands, during a period of ten years, were expiring in 50 BC, and he wanted to return to Rome for the consular elections. But resistance from the conservative faction of the Roman Senate, led by Pompey, demanded that Caesar resign his proconsulship and the command of his armies before being allowed to seek re-election to the consulship.

This Caesar would not do, as such an act would at least temporarily render him a private citizen and thereby leave him open to prosecution for his acts while proconsul. It would also place him at the mercy of Pompey's armies. To prevent this occurrence Caesar bribed the plebian tribune Curio to use his veto to prevent a senatorial decree which would deprive Caesar of his armies and provincial command, and then made sure Antony was elected tribune for the next term of office. Antony exercised his tribunician veto, with the aim of preventing a senatorial decree declaring martial law against the veto, and was violently expelled from the senate with another Caesar adherent, Cassius, who was also a tribune of the plebs. Caesar crossed the river Rubicon upon hearing of these affairs which began the Republican civil war. Antony left Rome and joined Caesar and his armies at Ariminium, where he was presented to Caesar's soldiers still bloody and bruised as an example of the illegalities that his political opponents were perpetrating, and as a casus belli. Tribunes of the Plebs were meant to be untouchable and their veto inalienable according to the Roman mos maiorum (although there was a grey line as to what extent this existed in the declaration of and during martial law). Antony commanded Italy whilst Caesar destroyed Pompey's legions in Spain, and led the reinforcements to Greece, before commanding the right wing of Caesar's armies at Pharsalus.

When Caesar became dictator for a second time, Antony was made Master of the Horse, and in this capacity he remained in Italy as the peninsula's administrator in 47 BC, while Caesar was fighting the last Pompeians, who had taken refuge in the province of Africa. But Antony's skills as an administrator were a poor match for his generalship, and he seized the opportunity of indulging in the most extravagant excesses, depicted by Cicero in the ''Philippics''. In 46 BC he seems to have taken offense because Caesar insisted on payment for the property of Pompey which Antony professedly had purchased, but had in fact simply appropriated. Conflict soon arose, and, as on other occasions, Antony resorted to violence. Hundreds of citizens were killed and Rome itself descended into a state of anarchy. Caesar was most displeased with the whole affair and removed Antony from all political responsibilities. The two men did not see each other for two years. The estrangement was not of long continuance, with Antony meeting the dictator at Narbo (45 BC) and rejecting the suggestion of Trebonius that he should join in the conspiracy that was already afoot. Reconciliation arrived in 44 BC, when Antony was chosen as partner for Caesar's fifth consulship.

Whatever conflicts existed between the two men, Antony remained faithful to Caesar but it is worth mentioning that according to Plutarch (paragraph 13) Trebonius, one of the conspirators, had 'sounded him unobtrusively and cautiously...Antony had understood his drift...but had given him no encouragement: at the same time he had not reported the conversation to Caesar'. On February 15, 44 BC, during the Lupercalia festival, Antony publicly offered Caesar a diadem. This was an event fraught with meaning: a diadem was a symbol of a king, and in refusing it, Caesar demonstrated that he did not intend to assume the throne.

On March 14, 44 BC, Antony was alarmed when Cicero told him the gods would strike Caesar. The following day, the Ides of March, he went down to warn the dictator but the ''Liberatores'' reached Caesar first and he was assassinated on March 15, 44 BC. In the turmoil that surrounded the event, Antony escaped Rome dressed as a slave; fearing that the dictator's assassination would be the start of a bloodbath among his supporters. When this did not occur, he soon returned to Rome, discussing a truce with the assassins' faction. For a while, Antony, as consul, seemed to pursue peace and an end to the political tension. Following a speech by Cicero in the Senate, an amnesty was agreed for the assassins.

Then came the day of Caesar's funeral. As Caesar's ever-present second in command, co-consul and cousin, Antony was the natural choice to give the eulogy. In his speech, he made accusations of murder and ensured a permanent breach with the conspirators. Showing a talent for rhetoric and dramatic interpretation, Antony snatched the toga from Caesar's body to show the crowd the stab wounds, pointing at each and naming the authors, publicly shaming them. During the eulogy he also read Caesar's will, which left most of his property to the people of Rome, demonstrating that, contrary to the conspirators' assertions, Caesar had no intention of forming a royal dynasty. Public opinion turned, and that night, the Roman populace attacked the assassins' houses, forcing them to flee for their lives.

Enemy of the state and triumvirate

Antony, left as sole Consul, surrounded himself with a bodyguard of Caesar's veterans and forced the senate to transfer to him the province of Cisalpine Gaul, which was then administered by Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, one of the conspirators. Brutus refused to surrender the province and Antony set out to attack him in the beginning of 43 BC, besieging him at Mutina. Encouraged by Cicero, the Senate denounced Antony and in January 43 they granted Octavian imperium (commanding power), which made his command of troops legal and sent him to relieve the siege, along with Aulus Hirtius and Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus, the consuls for 43 BC. In April 43, Antony's forces were defeated at the Battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina, forcing Antony to retreat to Transalpine Gaul. However, both consuls were killed, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies.

When they knew that Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius were assembling an army in order to march on Rome, Antony, Octavian and Lepidus allied in November 43 BC, forming the Second Triumvirate to stop Caesar's assassins. Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Antony and Octavian at the Battle of Philippi in October 42 BC. After the battle, a new arrangement was made between the members of the Second Triumvirate: while Octavian returned to Rome, Antony went on to govern the east. Lepidus went on to govern Hispania and the province of Africa. The triumvirate's enemies were subjected to proscription including Mark Antony's archenemy Cicero who was killed on December 7, 43 BC.

Antony and Cleopatra

Antony summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus in October 41 BC. There they formed an Alliance and became lovers. Antony returned to Alexandria with her, where he spent the winter of 41 BC - 40 BC. In spring 40 BC he was forced to return to Rome following news of his wife Fulvia's involvement in civil strife with Octavian on his behalf. Fulvia died while Antony was en-route to Sicyon (where Fulvia was exiled). Antony made peace with Octavian in September 40 BC and married Octavian's sister Octavia Minor.

The Parthian Empire had supported Brutus and Cassius in the civil war, sending forces which fought with them at Philippi; following Antony and Octavian's victory, the Parthians invaded Roman territory, occupying Syria, advancing into Asia Minor and installing Antigonus as puppet king in Judaea to replace the pro-Roman Hyrcanus. Antony sent his general Ventidius to oppose this invasion. Ventidius won a series of victories against the Parthians, killing the crown prince Pacorus and expelling them from the Roman territories they had seized. Antony now planned to retaliate by invading Parthia, and secured an agreement from Octavian to supply him with extra troops for his campaign. With this military purpose on his mind, Antony sailed to Greece with Octavia, where he behaved in a most extravagant manner, assuming the attributes of the Greek god Dionysus in 39 BC. But the rebellion in Sicily of Sextus Pompeius, the last of the Pompeians, kept the army promised to Antony in Italy. With his plans again disrupted, Antony and Octavian quarreled once more. This time with the help of Octavia, a new treaty was signed in Tarentum in 38 BC. The triumvirate was renewed for a period of another five years (ending in 33 BC) and Octavian promised again to send legions to the East.

But by now, Antony was skeptical of Octavian's true support of his Parthian cause. Leaving Octavia pregnant with her second child Antonia in Rome, he sailed to Alexandria, where he expected funding from Cleopatra, the mother of his twins. The queen of Egypt lent him the money he needed for the army, and after capturing Jerusalem and surrounding areas in 37 BC, he installed Herod as puppet king of Judaea, replacing the Parthian appointee Antigonus. Antony then invaded Parthian territory with an army of about 100,000 Roman and allied troops but the campaign proved a disaster. After defeats in battle, the desertion of his Armenian allies and his failure to capture Parthian strongholds convinced Antony to retreat, his army was further depleted by the hardships of its retreat through Armenia in the depths of winter, losing more than a quarter of its strength in the course of the campaign.

Meanwhile, in Rome, the triumvirate was no more. Octavian forced Lepidus to resign after the older triumvir attempted an ill-judged political move. Now in sole power, Octavian was occupied in wooing the traditional Republican aristocracy to his side. He married Livia and started to attack Antony in order to raise himself to power. He argued that Antony was a man of low morals to have left his faithful wife abandoned in Rome with the children to be with the promiscuous queen of Egypt. Antony was accused of everything, but most of all, of "going native", an unforgivable crime to the proud Romans. Several times Antony was summoned to Rome, but remained in Alexandria with Cleopatra.

Again with Egyptian money, Antony invaded Armenia, this time successfully. In the return, a mock Roman Triumph was celebrated in the streets of Alexandria. The parade through the city was a pastiche of Rome's most important military celebration. For the finale, the whole city was summoned to hear a very important political statement. Surrounded by Cleopatra and her children, Antony ended his alliance with Octavian. He distributed kingdoms between his children: Alexander Helios was named king of Armenia, Media and Parthia (which were never conquered by Rome), his twin Selene got Cyrenaica and Libya, and the young Ptolemy Philadelphus was awarded Syria and Cilicia. As for Cleopatra, she was proclaimed Queen of Kings and Queen of Egypt, to rule with Caesarion (Ptolemy XV Caesar, son of Julius Caesar), King of Kings and King of Egypt. Most important of all, Caesarion was declared legitimate son and heir of Caesar. These proclamations were known as the ''Donations of Alexandria'' and caused a fatal breach in Antony's relations with Rome.

While the distribution of nations among Cleopatra's children was hardly a conciliatory gesture, it did not pose an immediate threat to Octavian's political position. Far more dangerous was the acknowledgment of Caesarion as legitimate and heir to Caesar's name. Octavian's base of power was his link with Caesar through adoption, which granted him much-needed popularity and loyalty of the legions. To see this convenient situation attacked by a child borne by the richest woman in the world was something Octavian could not accept. The triumvirate expired on the last day of 33 BC and was not renewed. Another civil war was beginning.

During 33 and 32 BC, a propaganda war was fought in the political arena of Rome, with accusations flying between sides. Antony (in Egypt) divorced Octavia and accused Octavian of being a social upstart, of usurping power, and of forging the adoption papers by Caesar. Octavian responded with treason charges: of illegally keeping provinces that should be given to other men by lots, as was Rome's tradition, and of starting wars against foreign nations (Armenia and Parthia) without the consent of the Senate. Antony was also held responsible for Sextus Pompeius' execution with no trial. In 32 BC, the Senate deprived him of his powers and declared war against Cleopatra - not Antony, because Octavian had no wish to advertise his role in perpetuating Rome's internecine bloodshed. Both consuls, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sosius, and a third of the Senate abandoned Rome to meet Antony and Cleopatra in Greece.

In 31 BC, the war started. Octavian's loyal and talented general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa captured the Greek city and naval port of Methone, loyal to Antony. The enormous popularity of Octavian with the legions secured the defection of the provinces of Cyrenaica and Greece to his side. On September 2, the naval battle of Actium took place. Antony and Cleopatra's navy was destroyed, and they were forced to escape to Egypt with 60 ships.

Octavian, now close to absolute power, did not intend to give them rest. In August 30 BC, assisted by Agrippa, he invaded Egypt. With no other refuge to escape to, Antony committed suicide by stabbing himself with his sword in the mistaken belief that Cleopatra had already done so. When he found out that Cleopatra was still alive, his friends brought him to Cleopatra's monument in which she was hiding, and he died in her arms. (However, some sources claim that he did not commit suicide but was killed by an Egyptian priest who was in favour of Octavian.) Cleopatra was allowed to conduct Antony's burial rites after she had been captured by Octavian. Realising that she was destined for Octavian's triumph in Rome, she made several attempts to take her life and was finally successful in mid-August. Octavian had Caesarion murdered, but he spared Antony's children by Cleopatra, who were paraded through the streets of Rome. Antony's daughters by Octavia were spared, as was his son, Iullus Antonius. But his elder son, Marcus Antonius Antyllus, was killed by Octavian's men while pleading for his life in the Caesarium.

Aftermath and legacy

Cicero's son, Cicero Minor, announced Antony's death to the senate. Antony's honours were revoked and his statues removed. Cicero also made a decree that no member of the Antonii would ever bear the name Marcus again. “In this way Heaven entrusted the family of Cicero the final acts in the punishment of Antony.”

When Antony died, Octavian became uncontested ruler of Rome. In the following years, Octavian, who was known as Augustus after 27 BC, managed to accumulate in his person all administrative, political, and military offices. When Augustus died in 14 AD, his political powers passed to his adopted son Tiberius; the Roman Principate had begun.

The rise of Caesar and the subsequent civil war between his two most powerful adherents effectively ended the credibility of the Roman oligarchy as a governing power and ensured that all future power struggles would centre upon which of two (or more) individuals would achieve supreme control of the government, rather than upon an individual in conflict with the Senate. Thus Antony, as Caesar's key adherent and one of the two men around whom power coalesced following his assassination, was one of the three men chiefly responsible for the fall of the Roman Republic.

Marriages and issue

Antony had been married in succession to Fadia, Antonia, Fulvia, Octavia and Cleopatra, and left behind him a number of children. Through his daughters by Octavia, he would be ancestor to the Roman Emperors Caligula, Claudius and Nero. #Marriage to Fadia, a daughter of a freedman. According to Cicero, Fadia bore Antony several children. Nothing is known about Fadia or their children. Cicero is the only Roman source that mentions Antony’s first wife. #Marriage to first paternal cousin Antonia Hybrida Minor. According to Plutarch, Antony threw her out of his house in Rome, because she slept with his friend, the tribune Publius Cornelius Dolabella. This occurred by 47 BC and Antony divorced her. By Antonia, he had a daughter: #*Antonia, granddaughter of Gaius Antonius Hybrida, married the wealthy Greek Pythodoros of Tralles. #Marriage to Fulvia, by whom he had two sons: #*Marcus Antonius Antyllus, murdered by Octavian in 30 BC. #*Iullus Antonius, married Claudia Marcella Major, daughter of Octavia. #Marriage to Octavia the Younger, sister of Octavian, later Augustus; they had two daughters: #*Antonia Major, married Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 16 BC); maternal grandmother of the Empress Valeria Messalina and paternal grandmother of the Emperor Nero. #*Antonia Minor, married Nero Claudius Drusus, the younger son of the Empress Livia Drusilla and brother of the Emperor Tiberius; mother of the Emperor Claudius, grandmother of the Emperor Caligula and Empress Agrippina the Younger, and maternal great-grandmother of the emperor Nero. #Children with the Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, the former lover of Julius Caesar: #*The twins Alexander Helios & Cleopatra Selene II. Selene married King Juba II of Numidia and later Mauretania; the queen of Syria, Zenobia of Palmyra, is reportedly descended from Selene and Juba II. #*Ptolemy Philadelphus.

Descendants

Through his youngest daughters, Antony would become ancestor to most of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the very family he had fought unsuccessfully to defeat. Through his eldest daughter, he would become ancestor to the long line of kings and co-rulers of the Bosporan Kingdom, the longest-living Roman client kingdom, as well as the rulers and royalty of several other Roman client states. Through his daughter by Cleopatra, Antony would become ancestor to the royal family of Mauretania, another Roman client kingdom, while through his sole surviving son Iullus, he would be ancestor to several famous Roman statesmen.

:1. Antonia, born 50 BC, had 1 child ::A. Pythodorida of Pontus, 30 BC or 29 BC - 38 AD, had 3 children :::I. Artaxias III, King of Armenia, 13 BC - 35 AD, died without issue :::II. Polemon II, King of Pontus, 12 BC or 11 BC - 74 AD, died without issue :::III. Antonia Tryphaena, Queen of Thrace, 10 BC - 55 AD, had 4 children ::::a. Rhoemetalces II, King of Thrace, died 38 AD, died without issue ::::b. Gepaepyris, Queen of the Bosporan Kingdom, had 2 children :::::i. Tiberius Julius Mithridates, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 68 AD, died without issue :::::ii. Tiberius Julius Cotys I, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, had 1 child ::::::i. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis I, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 90 AD, had 1 child :::::::i. Tiberius Julius Sauromates I, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, had 1 child ::::::::i. Tiberius Julius Cotys II, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, had 1 child :::::::::i. Rhoemetalces, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 153 AD, had 1 child ::::::::::i. Eupator, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 174 AD, had 1 child :::::::::::i. Tiberius Julius Sauromates II, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 210 AD or 211 AD, had 2 children ::::::::::::i. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis II, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 227 AD, had 1 child :::::::::::::i. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis III,King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 227 AD ::::::::::::ii. Tiberius Julius Cotys III, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 235 AD, had 3 children :::::::::::::i. Tiberius Julius Sauromates III, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 232 AD :::::::::::::ii. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis IV, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 235 AD :::::::::::::iii. Tiberius Julius Ininthimeus, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 240 AD, had 1 child ::::::::::::::i. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis V, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 276 AD, had 3 children :::::::::::::::i. Tiberius Julius Pharsanzes, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 254 AD :::::::::::::::ii. Synges, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 276 AD :::::::::::::::iii. Tiberius Julius Teiranes, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 279 AD, had 2 children ::::::::::::::::i. Tiberius Julius Sauromates IV, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 276 AD ::::::::::::::::ii. Theothorses, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 309 AD, had 3 children :::::::::::::::::i. Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis VI, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 342 AD :::::::::::::::::ii. Rhadamsades, King of the Bosporan Kingdom, died 323 AD :::::::::::::::::iii. Nana, Queen of Caucasian Iberia, died 363 AD ::::c. Cotys IX, King of Lesser Armenia ::::d. Pythodoris II of Thrace, died without issue :2. Marcus Antonius Antyllus, 47 BC - 30 BC, died without issue :3. Iullus Antonius, 43 BC - 2 BC, had 3 children ::A. Lucius Antonius, 20 BC – 34 AD, had 2 children :::I. Marcus Antonius Primus, 30/35 AD - after 81 AD :::II. Antonia Postuma, born 34 AD ::B. Gaius Antonius ::C. Iulla Antonia, born after 19 BC :4. Prince Alexander Helios of Egypt, born 40 BC, died without issue (presumably) :5. Cleopatra Selene, Queen of Mauretania, 40 BC - 6 AD, had 2 children ::A. Ptolemy, King of Mauretania, 1 BC - 40 AD, had 1 child :::I. Drusilla, Queen of Emesa, 38 AD - 79 AD, had 1 child ::::a. Gaius Julius Alexio, King of Emesa, had 1 child :::::i. Gaius Julius Fabia Sampsiceramus III Silas, King of Emesa, had at least 1 child ::B. Princess Drusilla of Mauretania, born 5 AD or 8 BC :6. Antonia Major, 39 BC - before 25 AD, had 3 children ::A. Domitia Lepida the Elder, c. 19 BC - 59 AD, had 1 child :::I. Quintus Haterius Antoninus ::B. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, 17 BC - 40 AD, had 1 child :::I. Nero (see line of Antonia Minor below) ::C. Domitia Lepida the Younger, 10 BC - 54 AD, had 3 children :::I. Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus :::II. Valeria Messalina, 17 AD or 20 AD - 48 AD, had 2 children ::::a. (Messalina was the mother of the two youngest children of the Roman Emperor Claudius listed below) :::III. Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix, 22 AD - 62 AD, had 1 child ::::a. a son (this child and the only child of the Claudia Antonia listed below are the same person) :7. Antonia Minor, 36 BC - 37 AD, had 3 children ::A. Germanicus, 16 BC or 15 BC - 19 AD, had 6 children :::I. Nero Caesar, 6 AD - 30 AD, died without issue :::II. Drusus Caesar, 7 AD - 33 AD, died without issue :::III. Caligula, 12 AD - 41 AD, had 1 child; ::::a. Julia Drusilla, 39 AD - 41 AD, died young :::IV. Agrippina the Younger, 15 AD - 59, had 1 child; ::::a. Nero, 37 AD - 68 AD , had 1 child; :::::i. Claudia Augusta, Jan. 63 AD - April 63 AD, died young :::V. Julia Drusilla, 16 AD - 38 AD, died without issue :::VI. Julia Livilla, 18 AD - 42 AD, died without issue ::B. Livilla, 13 BC - 31 AD, had three children :::I. Julia, 5 AD - 43 AD, had 4 children ::::a. Gaius Rubellius Plautus, 33 AD - 62 AD, had several children ::::b. Rubellia Bassa, born between 33 AD and 38 AD, had at least 1 child :::::i. Octavius Laenas, had at least 1 child ::::::i. Sergius Octavius Laenas Pontianus ::::c. Gaius Rubellius Blandus ::::d. Rubellius Drusus :::II. Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero Gemellus, 19AD - 37 AD or 38 AD, died without issue :::III. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Germanicus II Gemellus, 19 AD - 23 AD, died young ::C. Claudius, 10 BC - 54 AD, had 4 children :::I. Claudius Drusus, died young :::II. Claudia Antonia, c. 30 AD - 66 AD, had 1 child ::::a. a son, died young :::III. Claudia Octavia, 39 AD or 40AD - 62 AD, died without issue :::IV. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Britannicus, 41 AD - 55 AD, died without issue :8. Prince Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt, 36 BC - 29 BC, died without issue (presumably)

Artistic portrayals

Works in which the character of Mark Antony plays a central role include:

Dramas

William Shakespeare's ''Julius Caesar'' and ''Antony and Cleopatra'', and the films made from these two plays (played by Marlon Brando and Robert Speaight, respectively).

John Dryden's ''All for Love''

The 1934 film ''Cleopatra'' (played by Henry Wilcoxon)

The 1963 film ''Cleopatra'' (played by Richard Burton)

The TV series ''Xena: Warrior Princess'' (played by Manu Bennett)

The HBO/BBC TV series ''Rome'' (see Mark Antony (character)) (played by James Purefoy)

The Capcom Video Game ''Shadow of Rome'', in which he is depicted as the main antagonist

The 1999 film ''Cleopatra'' (played by Billy Zane)

The 2005 TV mini series ''Empire'' (played by Vincent Regan)

Giles Coren portrayed Mark Antony in the sixth episode of the second series of ''The Supersizers Eat'' (aired BBC One, 9:00pm Monday 27 July 2009)

BBC One docudrama ''Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire'' (played by Alex Ferns)

The 2010 EA video game ''Dante's Inferno'' as a boss alongside a giant Cleopatra in the second circle of hell (lust), his last words to Cleopatra are "you said we'd be together for eternity" before disappearing.

Novels

Colleen McCullough's ''Masters of Rome'' series, Antony is portrayed as a deeply flawed character, a brave warrior but sexually promiscuous, often drunk and foolish, and a monster of vanity who loves riding in a chariot drawn by lions.

''The Memoirs of Cleopatra'', a novel by Margaret George

Conn Iggulden's ''Emperor'' novels

Poetry

Constantine P. Cavafy's poem ''The God Abandons Antony'', a hymn to human's dignity, depicts the imaginary last moments of Mark Antony while he sees his fortunes turning around.

Lytle, William Haines (1826–1863), ''Antony and Cleopatra''

Stacy Schiff: Cleopatra. A Life

Music

Mentioned in the Horrible Histories song, "Ra Ra Cleopatra".

References

Primary sources

Dio Cassius xli.–liii

Appian, ''Bell. Civ.'' i.–v.

Caesar, ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico'' and ''Commentarii de Bello Civili''

Cicero, ''Letters'' and ''Philippics''

*Philippics against Marcus Antonius'' ~ Tufts University Classics Collection">''Orations: The fourteen Philippics against Marcus Antonius'' ~ Tufts University Classics Collection

Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives (Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans)''

*Plutarch's ''Parallel Lives'': "Antony" ~ Internet Classics Archive (MIT)

*Plutarch's ''Parallel Lives'': "Life of Antony" - Loeb Classical Library edition, 1920

*Plutarch's ''Parallel Lives'': "The Comparison of Demetrius and Antony" ~ Internet Classics Archive (MIT)

Modern works

Foreign Language Works

Bengtson, Hermann: ''Marcus Antonius, Triumvir und Herrscher des Orients'' (C. H. Beck, Münich, 1977) ISBN 3 406 06600 3

Groebe, Pauly-Wissowa ''Realencyclopadie''

Paul-Marius Martin, ''Antoine et Cléopâtre, la fin d'un rêve'', Albin Michel, 1990, 287 p.

External links

Category:83 BC births Category:30 BC deaths Category:1st-century BC clergy Category:1st-century BC Romans Category:Ancient Roman generals Category:Ancient Romans who committed suicide Marcus Category:Correspondents of Cicero Category:Roman people of the Gallic Wars Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty Category:Ancient Roman military personnel who committed suicide Category:People from Rome (city) Category:Ptolemaic dynasty Category:Roman augurs Category:Ancient Roman Masters of the Horse Category:Roman Republican consuls Category:Roman tribunes of the plebs Category:Suicides by sharp instrument

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