The Normans were the people descended from Norse Vikings who in the 10th century founded the Duchy of Normandy, a fiefdom of the Kingdom of France. Their identity emerged initially in the first half of the 10th century, and gradually evolved over succeeding centuries. Although quickly adapting to the customs of their subjects, the Normans still retained many of the traits of their Viking ancestors. They displayed an extreme restlessness and recklessness, a love of fighting accompanied by almost foolhardy courage, and a craftiness and cunning that went hand in hand with outrageous treachery. In their expansion into other parts of Europe, the Normans compiled a record of astonishingly daring exploits in which often a mere handful of men would vanquish an enemy many times as numerous. An unequaled capacity for rapid movement across land and sea, the use of brutal violence and a precocious sense of the use and value of money were all traits that characterized the Normans.

They played a major political, military, and cultural role in medieval Europe and even the Near East. They were famed for their martial spirit and eventually for their Christian piety. They quickly adopted the Romance language of the land they settled, their dialect becoming known as Norman or Norman-French, an important literary language. The Duchy of Normandy, which they formed by treaty with the French crown, was one of the great fiefs of medieval France. The Normans are famed both for their culture, such as their unique Romanesque architecture, and their musical traditions, as well as for their military accomplishments and innovations. Norman adventurers established a kingdom in Sicily and southern Italy by conquest, and a Norman expedition on behalf of their duke led to the Norman Conquest of England. Norman influence spread from these new centres to the Crusader States in the Near East, to Scotland and Wales in Great Britain, and to Ireland.

Etymology

The English name "Normans" comes from the French words ''Normans'' / ''Normanz'', plural of ''Normant'',that is itself borrowed from Old Low Franconian ''Nortmann'' "Northman" or directly from Old Norse ''Norðmaðr'', latinized in ''Nortmannus'' (recorded in Medieval Latin, 9th century) to mean "Norseman" or "Viking".

Characteristics

11th century Benedictine monk and historian, Geoffrey Malaterra characterised the Normans thus:

Specially marked by cunning, despising their own inheritance in the hope of winning a greater, eager after both gain and dominion, given to imitation of all kinds, holding a certain mean between lavishness and greediness, that is, perhaps uniting, as they certainly did, these two seemingly opposite qualities. Their chief men were specially lavish through their desire of good report. They were, moreover, a race skillful in flattery, given to the study of eloquence, so that the very boys were orators, a race altogether unbridled unless held firmly down by the yoke of justice. They were enduring of toil, hunger, and cold whenever fortune laid it on them, given to hunting and hawking, delighting in the pleasure of horses, and of all the weapons and garb of war."

Their quick adaptability expressed itself in the shrewd Norman willingness to take on local men of talent, to marry the high-born local women; confidently illiterate Norman masters used the literate clerks of the church for their own purposes.

Anna Komnene, the daughter of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos, described the Norman prince Bohemund I:

Now Bohemund was such as, to put it briefly, had never before been seen in the land of the Romans, be he either of the barbarians or of the Greeks (for he was a marvel for the eyes to behold, and his reputation was terrifying). Let me describe the barbarian's appearance more particularly - he was so tall in stature that he overtopped the tallest by nearly one cubit, narrow in the waist and loins, with broad shoulders and a deep chest and powerful arms. And in the whole build of the body he was neither too slender nor overweighted with flesh, but perfectly proportioned and, one might say, built in conformity with the canon of Polycleitus... His skin all over his body was very white, and in his face the white was tempered with red. His hair was yellowish, but did not hang down to his waist like that of the other barbarians; for the man was not inordinately vain of his hair, but had it cut short to the ears. Whether his beard was reddish, or any other colour I cannot say, for the razor had passed over it very closely and left a surface smoother than chalk... His blue eyes indicated both a high spirit and dignity.

Deine Mutter

Normandy

The Duchy of Normandy was founded by the 10th century Norse leader Rollo, in the former kingdom of Neustria, part of the Kingdom of France. Geographically, it was approximately the same region as the old church province of Rouen and what was called ''Brittania Nova'' as well as western Flanders. It had no natural frontiers and was previously merely an administrative unit. Historically, its population was mostly Frankish. It included Viking settlers, who had begun arriving in the 880s, divided between a small colony in Upper (or eastern) Normandy and a larger one in Lower (or western) Normandy. The Viking contingents who raided, and ultimately settled Normandy and some parts of the Atlantic coast, included Danes, Norwegians, Hiberno-Norse, Orkney Vikings, as well as Anglo-Danes from the English Danelaw, under Viking control.

In the course of the 10th century, the initial destructive incursions of Norse war bands into the rivers of France evolved into permanent encampments that included women and chattel. The pagan culture was substitued by the Christian faith and Gallo-Romance language of the local people. The small groups of Vikings that settled there adopted the language and culture of the French majority into their own customs to create a unique "Norman" culture.

In Normandy, they adopted the growing feudal doctrines of the rest of northern France, and worked them, both in Normandy and in England, into a functional hierarchical system. The Norman warrior class was new and different from the old French aristocracy, most of whom could trace their families back to the Franks of Carolingian times. Most knights remained poor and land-hungry; by 1066, Normandy had been exporting fighting horsemen for more than a generation. Knighthood before the time of the Crusades held little social status, and simply indicated a professional warrior wealthy enough to own a war horse. Many Normans of France and Britain would eventually serve as avid Crusaders.

The Norman language was forged by the adoption of the indigenous oïl language by a Norse-speaking ruling class, and developed into the regional language which survives today.

Conquests

In Italy

Opportunistic bands of Normans successfully established a foothold far to the south of Normandy. Probably the result of returning pilgrims' stories, the Normans entered the Mezzogiorno as warriors in 1017, at the latest. In 999, according to Amatus of Montecassino, pilgrims returning from Jerusalem called in at the port of Salerno, when a Saracen attack occurred. The Normans fought so valiantly that Prince Guaimar IV begged them to stay, but they refused and instead offered to tell others back home of the prince's request. William of Apulia tells that, in 1016, pilgrims to the shrine of the Archangel Michael at Monte Gargano were met by Melus of Bari, a Lombard freedom-fighter, who persuaded them to return with more warriors to help throw off the Byzantine rule, which they did.

The two most prominent families to arrive in the Mediterranean were descendants of Tancred of Hauteville and the Drengots, of whom Rainulf Drengot received the county of Aversa, the first Norman toehold in the south, from Duke Sergius IV of Naples in 1030. The Hautevilles achieved princely rank by proclaiming Prince Guaimar IV of Salerno "Duke of Apulia and Calabria". He promptly awarded their elected leader, William Iron Arm, with the title of count with his capital of Melfi. Soon the Drengots had attained unto the principality of Capua, and the Emperor Henry III had legally ennobled the Hauteville leader, Drogo, as ''dux et magister Italiae comesque Normannorum totius Apuliae et Calabriae'' in 1047.

From these bases, the Normans eventually captured Sicily and Malta from the Moslem Saracens, under the famous Robert Guiscard, a Hauteville, and his young brother Roger the Great Count. Roger's son, Roger II, was crowned king in 1130 (exactly one century after Rainulf was "crowned" count) by Pope Anacletus II. The kingdom of Sicily lasted until 1194, when it fell to the Hohenstaufens through marriage.

The Normans left their mark however in the many castles, such as the Iron Arm's fortress at Squillace, and cathedrals, such as Roger II's at Cefalù, which dot the landscape and give a wholly distinct architectural flavour to accompany its unique history. Institutionally, the Normans combined the administrative machinery of the Byzantines, Arabs, and Lombards with their own conceptions of feudal law and order to forge a unique government. Under this state, there was great religious freedom, and alongside the Norman nobles existed a meritocratic bureaucracy of Jews, Muslims, and Christians, both Catholic and Orthodox.

In Byzantium

Soon after the Normans first began to enter Italy, they entered the Byzantine Empire, and then Armenia against the Pechenegs, Bulgars, and especially Seljuk Turks. The Norman mercenaries first encouraged to come to the south by the Lombards to act against the Byzantines soon fought in Byzantine service in Sicily. They were prominent alongside Varangian and Lombard contingents in the Sicilian campaign of George Maniaces of 1038–40. There is debate whether the Normans in Greek service were mostly or at all from Norman Italy, and it now seems likely only a few came from there. It is also unknown how many of the "Franks", as the Byzantines called them, were Normans and not other Frenchmen.

One of the first Norman mercenaries to serve as a Byzantine general was Hervé in the 1050s. By then however, there were already Norman mercenaries serving as far away as Trebizond and Georgia. They were based at Malatya and Edessa, under the Byzantine duke of Antioch, Isaac Komnenos. In the 1060s, Robert Crispin led the Normans of Edessa against the Turks. Roussel de Bailleul even tried to carve out an independent state in Asia Minor with support from the local population, but he was stopped by the Byzantine general Alexius Komnenos.

Some Normans joined Turkish forces to aid in the destruction of the Armenians vassal-states of Sassoun and Taron in far eastern Anatolia. Later, many took up service with the Armenian states further south in Cilicia and the Taurus Mountains. A Norman named Oursel led a force of "Franks" into the upper Euphrates valley in northern Syria. From 1073 to 1074, 8,000 of the 20,000 troops of the Armenian general Philaretus Brachamius were Normans — formerly of Oursel — led by Raimbaud. They even lent their ethnicity to the name of their castle: Afranji, meaning "Franks." The known trade between Amalfi and Antioch and between Bari and Tarsus may be related to the presence of Italo-Normans in those cities while Amalfi and Bari were under Norman rule in Italy.

Several families of Byzantine Greece were of Norman mercenary origin during the period of the Comnenian Restoration, when Byzantine emperors were seeking out western European warriors. The Raoulii were descended from an Italo-Norman named Raoul, the Petraliphae were descended from a Pierre d'Aulps, and that group of Albanian clans known as the Maniakates were descended from Normans who served under George Maniaces in the Sicilian expedition of 1038.

Robert Guiscard ultimately drove out the Byzantines from southern Italy. Having obtained pope Gregory VII's consent and acting as his vassal, Robert continued his campaign in conquering the Balkan peninsula as a foothold for western feudal lords and the Catholic Church. After allying himself with Croatia and the Catholic cities of Dalmatia, in the year 1081 an army of 30,000 men in 300 ships landed in the southern shores of Albania, capturing Valona, Kanina, Jericho (Orikumi), reaching Butrint after numerous pillages. They joined the fleet that had previously conquered Corfu. The Normans attacked Dyrrachium from land and sea, devastating everything along the way. Under these harsh circumstances, the locals accepted emperor Alexius I Comnenus' call to join forces with the Byzantines against the Normans who besieged Dyrrachium. The Albanian forces could not take part in the ensuing battle, because it had started too early, before their arrival. Immediately before the battle the Venetian fleet had secured a victory in the coast surrounding the city. Forced to retreat, Alexius ceded the command to a high Albanian official named Comiscortes in the service of Byzantium. The city's garrison resisted until February 1082, when Dyrrachium was betrayed to the Normans by the Venetian and Amalfitan merchants who had settled in the city. The Normans were now free to penetrate in the hinterland; they took Ioannina, some minor cities in Southwestern Macedonia, Thessaly and appeared before the gates of Thessalonica. Dissension among the high ranks coerced the Normans to retreat in Italy; they lost Dyrrachium, Valona and Butrint in 1085 after the death of Robert.

A few years after the First Crusade, in 1107, the Normans under the command of Bohemond, Robert's son, landed in Valona and besieged Dyrrachium using the most sophisticated military equipment of the time, but to no avail. Meanwhile, they occupied Petrela, the citadel of Mili at the banks of the river Deabolis, Gllavenica (Ballsh), Kanina and Jericho. This time, the Albanians sided with the Normans, dissatisfied by the heavy taxes the Byzantines had imposed upon them. With their help, the Normans secured the Arbanon passes and opened their way to Dibra. The lack of supplies, disease and Byzantine resistance forced Bohemond to retreat from his campaign and sign a peace treaty with the Byzantines in the city of Deabolis. The further decline of Byzantine state-of-affairs paved the road to a third attack in 1185, when a large Norman army invaded Dyrrachium, owing to the betrayal of high Byzantine officials. Some time later, Dyrrachium—one of the most important naval bases of the Adriatic—fell again to Byzantine hands.

In England

The Normans were in contact with England from an early date. Not only were their original Viking brethren still ravaging the English coasts, they occupied most of the important ports opposite England across the Channel. This relationship eventually produced closer ties of blood through the marriage of Emma, sister of Duke Richard II of Normandy, and King Ethelred II of England. Because of this, Ethelred fled to Normandy in 1013, when he was forced from his kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard. His stay in Normandy (until 1016) influenced him and his sons by Emma, who stayed in Normandy after Canute the Great's conquest of the isle.

When finally Edward the Confessor returned from his father's refuge in 1041, at the invitation of his half-brother Harthacanute, he brought with him a Norman-educated mind. He also brought many Norman counsellors and fighters, some of whom established an English cavalry force. This concept never really took root, but it is a typical example of the attitudes of Edward. He appointed Robert of Jumièges archbishop of Canterbury and made Ralph the Timid earl of Hereford. He invited his brother-in-law Eustace II of Boulogne to his court in 1051, an event which resulted in the greatest of early conflicts between Saxon and Norman and ultimately resulted in the exile of Earl Godwin of Wessex.

In 1066, Duke William II of Normandy conquered England killing King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. The invading Normans and their descendants replaced the Anglo-Saxons as the ruling class of England. The nobility of England were part of a single French-speaking culture and many had lands on both sides of the channel. Early Norman kings of England were, as Dukes of Normandy, vassals to the King of France. They may not have necessarily considered England to be their most important holding (although it brought the title of King—an important status symbol). King Richard I (the Lionheart) is often thought to epitomise a medieval English King, but he only spoke French and spent more time in Aquitaine or on Crusade than in England.

Eventually, the Normans merged with the natives, combining languages and traditions. In the course of the Hundred Years war, the Norman aristocracy often identified themselves as English. The Anglo-Norman language became distinct from the French language, something that was the subject of some humour by Geoffrey Chaucer. The Anglo-Norman language was eventually absorbed into the English language of their subjects (see Old English language) and influenced it, helping (along with the Norse language of the earlier Anglo-Norse settlers and the Latin used by the church) the development of Middle English which would gain much vocabulary of French origin.

In Ireland

The Normans had a profound effect on Irish culture and history after their invasion at Bannow Bay in 1169. Initially the Normans maintained a distinct culture and ethnicity. Yet, with time, they came to be subsumed into Irish culture to the point that it has been said that they became "more Irish than the Irish themselves." The Normans settled mostly in an area in the east of Ireland, later known as the Pale, and also built many fine castles and settlements, including Trim Castle and Dublin Castle. Both cultures intermixed, borrowing from each other's language, culture and outlook. Norman descendants today can be recognised by their surnames. Names such as French, (De) Roche, D'Arcy and Leacy are particularly common in the southeast of Ireland, especially in the southern part of County Wexford where the first Norman settlements were established. Other Norman names such as Furlong predominate there. Another common Norman-Irish name was Morell (Murrell) derived from the French Norman name Morel. Other names beginning with Fitz (from the Norman for son) indicate Norman ancestry. These included Fitzgerald and Fitzmaurice.

In Scotland

One of the claimants of the English throne opposing William the Conqueror, Edgar Atheling, eventually fled to Scotland. King Malcolm III of Scotland married Edgar's sister Margaret, and came into opposition to William who had already disputed Scotland's southern borders. William invaded Scotland in 1072, riding as far as Abernethy where he met up with his fleet of ships. Malcolm submitted, paid homage to William and surrendered his son Duncan as a hostage, beginning a series of arguments as to whether the Scottish Crown owed allegiance to the King of England.

Normans came into Scotland, building castles and founding noble families who would provide some future kings, such as Robert the Bruce as well as founding some of the Scottish clans. King David I of Scotland, whose elder brother Alexander I had married Sybilla of Normandy, was instrumental in introducing Normans and Norman culture to Scotland, part of the process some scholars call the "Davidian Revolution". Having spent time at the court of Henry I of England (married to David's sister Maud of Scotland), and needing them to wrestle the kingdom from his half-brother Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair, David had to reward many with lands. The process was continued under David's successors, most intensely of all under William the Lion. The Norman-derived feudal system was applied in varying degrees to most of Scotland. Scottish families of the names Bruce, Ramsay, Fraser, Ogilvie, Montgomery, Sinclair, Pollock, Douglas and Gordon to name but a few, and including the later royal House of Stewart, can all be traced back to Norman ancestry.

In Wales

Even before the Norman Conquest of England, the Normans had come into contact with Wales. Edward the Confessor had set up the aforementioned Ralph as earl of Hereford and charged him with defending the Marches and warring with the Welsh. In these original ventures, the Normans failed to make any headway into Wales.

Subsequent to the Conquest, however, the Marches came completely under the dominance of William's most trusted Norman barons, including Bernard de Neufmarché, Roger of Montgomery in Shropshire and Hugh Lupus in Cheshire. These Normans began a long period of slow conquest during which almost all of Wales was at some point subject to Norman interference. Norman words, such as ''baron'' (''barwn''), first entered Welsh at that time.

On Crusade

The legendary religious zeal of the Normans was exercised in religious wars long before the First Crusade carved out a Norman principality in Antioch. They were major foreign participants in the Reconquista in Iberia. In 1018, Roger de Tosny travelled to the Iberian Peninsula to carve out a state for himself from Moorish lands, but failed. In 1064, during the War of Barbastro, William of Montreuil led the papal army and took a huge booty.

In 1096, Crusaders passing by the siege of Amalfi were joined by Bohemond of Taranto and his nephew Tancred with an army of Italo-Normans. Bohemond was the ''de facto'' leader of the Crusade during its passage through Asia Minor. After the successful Siege of Antioch in 1097, Bohemond began carving out an independent principality around that city. Tancred was instrumental in the conquest of Jerusalem and he worked for the expansion of the Crusader kingdom in Transjordan and the region of Galilee.

Anglo-Norman conquest of Cyprus

The conquest of Cyprus by the Anglo-Norman forces of the Third Crusade opened a new chapter in the history of the island, which would be under Western European domination for the following 380 years. Although not part of a planned operation, the conquest had much more permanent results than initially expected.

In April 1191 Richard Cœur de Lion, with a large fleet, left Messina in order to reach Acre. But a storm dispersed the fleet. After some searching, it was discovered that the boat carrying his sister and his fiancée Berengaria was anchored on the south coast of Cyprus, together with the wrecks of several other ships, including the treasure ship. Survivors of the wrecks had been taken prisoner by the island's despot Isaac Komnenos. On 1 May 1191, Richard's fleet arrived in the port of Limassol on Cyprus. He ordered Isaac to release the prisoners and the treasure. Isaac refused, so Richard landed his troops and took Limassol. thumb|left|The Castle of Limassol, near which Richard's wedding is supposed to have taken place.Various princes of the Holy Land arrived in Limassol at the same time, in particular Guy de Lusignan. All declared their support for Richard provided that he support Guy against his rival Conrad of Montferrat. The local barons abandoned Isaac, who considered making peace with Richard, joining him on the crusade, and offering his daughter in marriage to the person named by Richard. But Isaac changed his mind and tried to escape. Richard then proceeded to conquer the whole island, his troops being led by Guy de Lusignan. Isaac surrendered and was confined with silver chains, because Richard had promised that he would not place him in irons. By 1 June, Richard had conquered the whole island. His exploit was well publicized and contributed to his reputation; he also derived significant financial gains from the conquest of the island. Richard left for Acre on 5 June, with his allies. Before his departure, he named two of his Norman generals, Richard de Camville and Robert de Thornham, as governors of Cyprus.

While in Limassol, Richard married Berengaria of Navarre, first-born daughter of King Sancho VI of Navarre. The wedding was held on 12 May 1191 at the Chapel of St. George and it was attended by Richard's sister Joan, whom he had brought from Sicily. The marriage was celebrated with great pomp and splendor. Among other grand ceremonies was a double coronation: Richard caused himself to be crowned King of Cyprus, and Berengaria Queen of England and Queen of Cyprus as well.

The rapid Anglo-Norman conquest proved more important than it seemed. The island occupied a key strategic position on the maritime lanes to the Holy Land, whose occupation by the Christians could not continue without support from the sea. Shortly after the conquest, Cyprus was sold to the Knights Templar and it was subsequently acquired, in 1192, by Guy de Lusignan and became a stable feudal kingdom. It was only in 1489 that the Venetians acquired full control of the island, which remained a Christian stronghold until the fall of Famagusta in 1571.

Culture

Architecture

The Normans' architecture typically stands out as a new stage in the architectural history of the regions which they subdued. They spread a unique Romanesque idiom to England and Italy and the encastellation of these regions with keeps in their north French style fundamentally altered the military landscape. Their style was characterised by rounded arches (particularly over windows and doorways) and massive proportions.

In Italy, the Normans incorporated elements of the native Islamic, Lombard, and Byzantine architecture into their own, initiating a style known as Sicilian Romanesque. In England, the period of Norman architecture immediately succeeds that of the Anglo-Saxon and precedes the Early Gothic.

Visual arts

In the visual arts, the Normans did not have the rich and distinctive traditions of the cultures they conquered. However, in the early 11th century the dukes began a programme of church reform, encouraging the Cluniac reform of monasteries and patronising intellectual pursuits, especially the proliferation of scriptoria and the reconstitution of a compilation of lost illuminated manuscripts. The church was utilised by the dukes as a unifying force for their disparate duchy. The chief monasteries taking part in this "renaissance" of Norman art and scholarship were Mont-Saint-Michel, Fécamp, Jumièges, Bec, Saint-Ouen, Saint-Evroul, and Saint-Wandrille. These centres were in contact with the so-called "Winchester school", which channeled a pure Carolingian artistic tradition to Normandy. In the final decade of the eleventh and the first of 12th century, Normandy experienced a golden age of illustrated manuscripts, but it was brief and the major scriptoria of Normandy ceased to function after the midpoint of the century.

The Wars of Religion in the 16th century and French Revolution in the eighteenth successively destroyed much of what existed in the way of the architectural and artistic remnant of this Norman creativity. The first, by their violence, caused the wanton destruction of many Norman edifices; and the second, by its assault on religion, caused the purposeful destruction of religious objects of any type and by its destabilisation of society resulted in rampant pillaging.

By far the most famous work of Norman art is the Bayeux Tapestry, which is not a tapestry but a work of embroidery. It was commissioned by Odo, the Bishop of Bayeux and first Earl of Kent, employing natives from Kent who were learned in the Nordic traditions imported in the previous half century by the Danish Vikings.

In Britain, Norman art primarily survives as stonework or metalwork, such as capitals and baptismal fonts. In southern Italy, however, Norman artwork survives plentifully in forms strongly influenced by its Greek, Lombard, and Arab forebears. Of the royal regalia preserved in Palermo, the crown is Byzantine in style and the coronation cloak is of Arab craftsmanship with Arabic inscriptions. Many churches preserve sculptured fonts, capitals, and more importantly mosaics, which were common in Norman Italy and drew heavily on the Greek heritage. Lombard Salerno was a centre of ivorywork in the 11th century and this continued under Norman domination. Finally should be noted the intercourse between French Crusaders traveling to the Holy Land who brought with them French artefacts with which to gift the churches at which they stopped in southern Italy amongst their Norman cousins. For this reason many south Italian churches preserve works from France alongside their native pieces.

Music

Normandy was the site of several important developments in the history of classical music in the 11th century. Fécamp Abbey and Saint-Evroul Abbey were centres of musical production and education. At Fécamp, under two Italian abbots, William of Volpiano and John of Ravenna, the system of denoting notes by letters was developed and taught. It is still the most common form of pitch representation in English- and German-speaking countries today. Also at Fécamp, the staff, around which neumes were oriented, was first developed and taught in the 11th century. Under the German abbot Isembard, La Trinité-du-Mont became a centre of musical composition.

At Saint Evroul, a tradition of singing had developed and the choir achieved fame in Normandy. Under the Norman abbot Robert de Grantmesnil, several monks of Saint-Evroul fled to southern Italy, where they were patronised by Robert Guiscard and established a Latin monastery at Sant'Eufemia. There they continued the tradition of singing.

Rulers

List of Dukes of Normandy

List of Counts and Dukes of Apulia and Calabria

List of Counts of Aversa

List of Princes of Capua

List of Dukes of Gaeta

List of Princes of Taranto

List of monarchs of Sicily

List of Princes of Antioch

List of Officers of the Principality of Antioch

Second House of Lusignan

List of Kings of England

List of Kings of Scots

See also

Rus people

Lombards

Franks

References

Sources

Primary

Elisabeth van Houts, ed. ''The Normans in Europe'' Manchester Medieval Sources, Manchester 2000.

Medieval History Texts in Translation from the University of Leeds.

Secondary

Bates, David. ''Normandy before 1066'', London 1982

Chalandon, Ferdinand. ''Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sicilie''. Paris, 1907.

Chibnall, Marjorie. ''The Normans, The Peoples of Europe,'' Oxford 2000

Crouch, David. ''The Normans: The History of a Dynasty''. Hambledon & London, 2003.

Douglas, David. ''The Norman Achievement''. London, 1969.

Douglas, David. ''The Norman Fate''. London, 1976

Flori, Jean (1999 (French)), ''Richard Coeur de Lion: le roi-chevalier'', Paris: Biographie Payot, ISBN 978 2 2288 9272 8

Gillingham, John. ''The Angevin Empire'', end ed., London 2001.

Gravett, Christopher, and Nicolle, David. ''The Normans: Warrior Knights and their Castles''. Osprey Publishing: Oxford, 2006.

Green, Judith A. ''The Aristocracy of Norman England''. Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Gunn, Peter. ''Normandy: Landscape with Figures''. London: Victor Gollancz, Ltd, 1975.

Harper-Bill, Christopher and Elisabeth Van Houts, eds. ''A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World'' Boydell Press. 2003

Haskins, Charles H. ''Norman Institutions'', 1918

Maitland, F. W. ''Domesday Book and Beyond: Three Essays in the Early History of England''. 2d ed. Cambridge University Press, 1988. (feudal Saxons)

R. Mortimer, ''Angevin England 1154–1258'', Oxford 1994.

Muhlbergher, Stephen, ''Medieval England'' (Saxon social demotions)

Norwich, John Julius. ''The Normans in the South 1016–1130''. Longmans: London, 1967.

Norwich, John Julius. ''The Kingdom in the Sun 1130–1194''. Longman: London, 1970.

Robertson, A. J., ed. and trans. ''Laws of the Kings of England from Edmund to Henry I''. AMS Press, 1974. (Mudrum fine)

Painter, Sidney. ''A History of the Middle Ages 284−1500''. New York, 1953.

Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal ,"Algunas notas sobre la participación de Rogelio de Tosny en la Reconquista Ibérica", Estudios Humanísticos de la Universidad de Leon, III, 2004, pp. 263–74. http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=1078914

Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal, 2007. "Norman and Anglo-Norman Participation in the Iberian Reconquista." PhD thesis, University of Nottingham.

Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal, "Roger of Tosny's adventures in the County of Barcelona", Nottingham Medieval Studies LII, 2008, pp. 5–16.

Thompson, Kathleen, "The Norman Aristocracy before 1066:the Example of the Montgomerys'', ''Historical Research'' vol. 143, pp. 251–263,October 1987.

External links

Dudo of St. Quentin's Gesta Normannorum, English translation

The Normans, a European People, by the European Commission

Breve Chronicon Northmannicum (Latin).

The Normans Jersey heritage trust (pdf)

Wales History — The Norman Wars.

Patrick Kelly The Normans: their history, arms and tactics

Regia Anglorum Who were the Normans?

Category:Ethnic groups in Europe Category:Normans Category:Germanic peoples Category:North Germanic peoples

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label	Mercury, Decca, Columbia and Hickory Records
website	Sue Thompson Official Site Sue Thompson Unofficial Site }}

Sue Thompson (born Eva Sue McKee July 19, 1925, Nevada, Missouri) is an American pop and country music singer. She is best known for the million selling hits "Sad Movies (Make Me Cry)" and "Norman", both pop hits for her in the 1960s.

Early life

At the age of seven, she was already singing and playing the guitar on stage. When she and her family moved out west to San Jose, she appeared on the ''Hometown Hayride'' TV program. During World War II, she worked at a defense plant. She married when she was 17, and had a daughter at 20, but the marriage failed and she and her husband split up after three years. To keep supporting herself after her divorce, she returned to the nightclub scene in California. In San Jose, she won a talent contest, thus catching the attention of bandleader and radio/TV host Dude Martin. Martin invited Thompson to sing with his band, and this eventually led to their marriage. They recorded some duets together, including "If You Want Some Lovin'", which helped her get her own solo contract from Mercury Records in 1950.

Recording career

Within only a year, she had divorced Martin to marry Hank Penny, a comedian and singer. Penny and Thompson hosted a TV show in Los Angeles together before eventually moving to Las Vegas. Thompson recorded separately and also with her husband for Decca Records. However, none of their songs ever gained any real success. In 1960, Thompson signed on with Hickory Records. In 1961, "Sad Movies (Make Me Cry)" became a #5 hit on the pop charts, and she followed this up successfully with "Norman", which reached #3. Both of these hit singles were written by songwriter John D. Loudermilk. They both sold over one million copies, and were awarded with gold discs.

In 1962, "Have a Good Time" was a Top 40 hit and in 1963, "Willie Can" was a minor hit. With her lighthearted and breathy voice, Thompson became a favorite among the teenage crowd of the time, even though she was in her late thirties. Two further hits, also written by Loudermilk, were "James (Hold the Ladder Steady)" and "Paper Tiger".

Paper Tiger (1965 album)

The sleeve notes accompanying this album, released in 1965 by Hickory Records, written by Joe Lucas, give a little more detail of Thompson's early life and recording career as follows: 'Looking at lovely Sue Thompson today, it's hard to visualise her as a child—a freckle-faced tomboy, more at home on a horse than playing with dolls and doing the little things small girls are credited with doing. Yet this is the picture of Sue Thompson during her childhood in Nevada, Missouri. Sue, an only child, startled her family when she showed a flair for singing and show business. No one in her family was remotely connected with this type of business in any way. Sue was given a guitar for her seventh birthday, and with the aid of a cousin, soon began to learn a few chords. This was it! From that time on Sue and the guitar became one. She entertained every chance she had at school, church and social functions. Sue's mother became ill, so the family moved to Sheridan, California, where Sue entered high school and once again began to entertain at every opportunity. She went to San Jose, California for her last two years of school and it was here that her first real break came. She entered a contest at San Jose theater—won—and was awarded a two week engagement on the stage and a movie part.'

Joe Lucas's notes continued 'After school Sue worked at other jobs, but kept busy with radio, TV and personal appearances. She decided to devote her full time to entertainment and has played successfully at the Golden Nugget and Show Boat Hotels in Las Vegas, Nevada and the Riverside and Golden Nugget Hotels in Reno, Nevada and many, many others. Statistics wise, Sue stands five feet one inch, weighs 106 pounds and has red-blonde hair. Early in 1961, she signed an exclusive recording contract with Hickory Records, Inc. in Nashville, Tennessee. Her first release "Angel, Angel" did very well, but it was her second release "Sad Movies (Make Me Cry)" that spiraled into the top five best sellers in America and established her as a top rank recording artiste. If a clincher was needed, it was achieved when her third record came out called "Norman" which even surpassed "Sad Movies". Summing it all up, Sue Thompson is a great person with a wonderful future in view.'

Later career

"Paper Tiger" in 1965 was her last Top 30 hit. In the late 1960s, she went back to country music and released the album ''This Is Sue Thompson Country'' in 1969. In 1971 she worked with country music singer Don Gibson on some albums, and they had minor hits with "I Think They Call It Love", "Good Old Fashioned Country Love" and "Oh, How Love Changes". She recorded further solo singles for the country charts, like "Big Mable Murphy", which made the Top 50 in 1975 and "Never Naughty Rosie", her last chart single in 1976. She also performed mainly at the Las Vegas casinos and at clubs in Hollywood, like the ''Palomino Club''. In the 1990s she settled in Las Vegas, and continues to perform from time to time.

Discography

Albums

Year	Album	Chart Positions
		! width="50"	! width="50"
1961	''Meet Sue Thompson''
1962	''Two of a Kind''
1963	''Golden Hits''
1965	''Paper Tiger''
1966	''Sue Thompson with Strings Attached''
1969	''This Is Sue Thompson Country''
1972	''The Two of Us Together'' (with Don Gibson)
	''Sweet Memories''
''And Love Me''
	''Oh How Love Changes'' (with Don Gibson)
''Big Mable Murphy''

Singles

Year	Single	Chart Positions			Album
		! width="45"	! width="45"	! width="45"
	"Sad Movies (Make Me Cry)"
"Norman"
	"Two of a Kind"				''Two of a Kind''
"Have a Good Time"
"If Only the Boy Knew" (flip side)
"James (Hold the Ladder Steady)"
"Willie Can"
1963	"What's Wrong Bill"				''Paper Tiger''
	"Big Daddy"				single only
"Paper Tiger"A
1965	"What I'm Needin' Is You"
1972	"Candy and Roses"				''Sweet Memories''
1975	"Big Mable Murphy"				''Big Mable Murphy''
1976	"Never Naughty Rosie"				single only

^A"Paper Tiger" peaked at #8 on the ''RPM'' Top Singles chart in Canada.

Singles with Don Gibson

Year	Single	Chart Positions		Album
		! width="50"	CAN Country
	"The Two of Us Together"
"Did You Ever Think"
"I Think They Call It Love"
	"Cause I Love You"
"Go With Me"
1973	"Warm Love"
1974	"Good Old Fashioned Country Love"
1975	"Oh, How Love Changes"
1976	"Get Ready, Here I Come"

References

External links

[ Sue Thompson Discography at Allmusic]

Sue Thompson Unofficial Site

(http://www.suethompsoninternational.com/ Sue Thompson Official Site)

Category:1925 births Category:Living people Category:People from Nevada, Missouri Category:American country singers Category:American female singers Category:American pop singers Category:Musicians from Missouri Category:Rockabilly Hall of Fame inductees

name	David Starkey
birth date	January 03, 1945
birth name	David Starkey
birth place	Kendal, Westmorland, England
occupation	Historian, television personality
partner	James Brown
nationality	British
alma mater	Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge
language	English }}

David Starkey, CBE, FSA (born 3 January 1945) is a British constitutional historian, and a radio and television presenter.

He was born the only child of Quaker parents, and attended Kendal Grammar School before entering Cambridge through a scholarship. There he specialised in Tudor history, writing a thesis on King Henry VIII's household. From Cambridge he moved to the London School of Economics, where he taught history until 1998.

Starkey is a well known radio and television personality, first appearing on the latter in 1977. While a regular contributor to the BBC Radio 4 debate programme ''The Moral Maze'', his acerbic tongue earned him the sobriquet of "rudest man in Britain"; his frequent appearances on ''Question Time'' have been received with criticism and applause. Starkey has presented several history documentaries. In 2002 he signed a £2 million contract with Channel 4 for 25 hours of programming. Recently, he was a contributor on the Channel 4 series, ''Jamie's Dream School''.

He was appointed CBE in 2007, is an honorary associate of the National Secular Society and an ardent supporter of homosexual equality. He lives with his long-time partner, James Brown, in the south of England.

Early years and education

David Starkey was born on 3 January 1945 in Kendal. He is the only child of Robert Starkey and Elsie Lyon, Quakers who had married 10 years previously in Bolton, at a Friends meeting house. Robert, the son of a cotton spinner, was a foreman in a washing-machine factory, while Elsie followed in her father's footsteps and became a cotton weaver, and later a cleaner. Starkey has described his mother as both "wonderful", in that she helped develop his ambition, and "monstrous", intellectually frustrated and living through her son. "She was a wonderful but also very frightening parent. Finally, she was a Pygmalion. She wanted a creature, she wanted something she had made." Her dominance was in sharp contrast to his father, who he said was "poetic, reflective, rather solitary. The classic weak father, if you like. He wasn't a weak man, but as a father he was weak." The two shared a much closer relationship following his mother's death in 1977.

Starkey was born with two club feet. One was fixed early, while the other had to be operated on several times. He also suffered from polio. He suffered a nervous breakdown aged 13, and was taken by his mother to a boarding house in Southport, where he spent several months recovering. Starkey blamed it on the unfamiliar experience of being in a "highly competitive environment".

He excelled during his time at Kendal Grammar School, winning debating prizes and appearing in school plays. Although he showed an early inclination toward science, he chose instead to study history. A scholarship enabled his entry into Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge, where he gained a first, a PhD and a Fellowship. His doctoral supervisor was Professor Geoffrey Elton, an expert in Tudor studies. Starkey was fascinated by King Henry VIII, and his thesis centred around the Tudor monarch's inner household. He later criticised his mentor, who he says with age became "tetchy" and "arrogant". In 1983, when Elton was awarded a knighthood, Starkey derided one of his essays, ''Cromwell Redivivus''. The Professor responded by writing an "absolutely shocking" review of a collection of essays Starkey had edited. Starkey later expressed his remorse over the spat: "I regret that the thing happened at all."

Career

Starkey's move in 1972 to the London School of Economics came about through boredom with Cambridge and his attraction to London's gay scene. He claimed to be an "excessively enthusiastic advocate of promiscuity", liberating himself from his mother's intensity; she strongly disapproved of his homosexuality. A 30-year career as a teacher ended in 1998, when, blaming boredom and modern academic life, he gave it up.

Starkey entered the wider public conciousness in 1992 on the BBC Radio 4 debate programme ''The Moral Maze'', where he debated morality with fellow panellists Rabbi Julia Neuberger, Dr Roger Scruton and Janet Daley. He soon acquired a reputation for abrasiveness; he explained in 2007 that his personality possesses "a tendency towards showmanship... towards self-indulgence and explosion and repartee and occasional silliness and going over the top." The ''Daily Mail'' gave him the sobriquet of "the rudest man in Britain", although Starkey claims that his character was part of a "convenient image". He once attacked the Archdeacon of York George Austin over "his fatness, his smugness, and his pomposity", but after a nine-year stint on the programme, he left, citing his boredom with being "Dr Rude", but also its move to an evening slot. From 1995 he also spent three years at Talk Radio UK, presenting ''Starkey on Saturday'', later ''Starkey on Sunday''. An interview with Denis Healey proved to be one of his most embarrassing moments: "I mistakenly thought that he had become an amiable old buffer who would engage in amusing conversation, and he tore me limb from limb. I laugh about it now, but I didn't feel like laughing about it at the time."

His first appearance on television was in 1977, on the Granada Television series ''Behave Yourself'', with Russell Harty. He appeared as a prosecution witness in the 1984 ITV programme ''The Trial of Richard III'', whose jury ultimately acquitted the king on the grounds of insufficient evidence. His television documentaries on ''The Six Wives of Henry VIII'' and Elizabeth I were ratings successes. In 2002 he signed a £2 million contract with Channel 4 to produce 25 hours of television, which included ''Monarchy'', a chronicle of the history of English kings and queens from the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms onward. He presented the 2009 series ''Henry: Mind of a Tyrant'', which ''Independent'' reviewer Brian Viner called "highly fascinating", although AA Gill was less complimentary, calling it "Hello! history", and its presenter "a top-down historian, a nostalgic snob of the sort that collects souvenir egg cups". In an interview about the series for the ''Radio Times'', Starkey complained that too many historians had focussed on Henry's wives, and not the man himself. Referring to a "feminised history", he said: "so many of the writers who write about this are women and so much of their audience is a female audience." This prompted historian Lucy Worsley to label his comments as misogynous. More recently, he taught five history lessons in Channel 4's ''Jamie's Dream School'', following which he criticised the state education system.

He presented a documentary titled ''William and Kate: Romance and the Royals'', about which ''The Independent'' reviewer Amol Rajan was equivocal, although the ''Telegraph'''s Benji Wilson claimed he could tell that Starkey "felt that there was something a little tacky about the whole enterprise".

Starkey was in 1994 elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. He has worked as curator on several exhibitions, including a 2003 exhibit on Elizabeth I, following which he had lunch with the queen. Several years later he told a reporter that the monarch had no interest in her predecessors, other than those who followed her great grandfather. "I don't think she's at all comfortable with anybody - I would hesitate to use the word intellectual - but it's useful. I think she's got elements a bit like Goebbels in her attitude to culture - you remember: 'every time I hear the word culture I reach for my revolver.' I think the queen reaches for her mask." His remarks were criticised by royal biographer Penny Junor and royal historian Robert Lacey.

Politics

By his own admission Starkey was raised in an austere and frugal environment of near-poverty, with his parents often unemployed for long periods of time; an environment which, he later stated, taught him "the value of money". "I suppose my politics remained essentially in the middle-of the-road Labour left until the end of the 1970s". Starkey blames the Callaghan administration for "blow[ing] the nation's finances". He bemoaned the Tories when they were in opposition, criticising Michael Howard in particular: "I knew Michael Howard was going to be a disaster as soon as he opposed top-up fees, either out of sentimentality or calculated expediency so that it might get him a bit of the student vote... Instead of backing Tony Blair, causing revolution in the Labour Party, the Conservatives have been whoring after strange gods, coming up with increasingly strange policies." He likened Gordon Brown to the fictional Kenneth Widmerpool, continuing: "it seems to me that with Brown there is a complete sense of humour and charm bypass." Starkey prefers radical changes to the UK's constitution in line with the federal system used by the USA, although in an interview with Iain Dale he expressed his support for the monarchy, the queen, and Prince Charles. In the runup to the UK Alternative Vote referendum, he was a signatory on a letter to ''The Times'', which urged people to vote against the proposals.

A supporter of the Tory campaign for homosexual equality (Torche),|group="nb"}} during one of many appearances on the BBC's ''Question Time'' he attacked Jeffrey Archer over his views on the age of homosexual consent. Mike Russell, then Scottish government minister for culture and external affairs, called on him to apologise for comments made on the programme in 2009, when he declared Scotland, Ireland and Wales "feeble little countries".

Appearing on ''Any Questions?'' in 2010, he told Caroline Flint she had "prattled on". His recent comments on the BBC's ''Newsnight'' programme, made during a discussion about the 2011 England riots, precipitated support and condemnation from several notable commentators. Starkey claimed that "the whites have become black", and that "a particular sort of violent, destructive, nihilistic, gangster culture has become the fashion". Ed Miliband called his comments "racist, frankly", although author Toby Young, blogging in the ''Telegraph'', rejected such criticism, claiming that Starkey was talking not about black culture in general, but "a 'particular form' of black culture". Writing in ''The Daily Telegraph'', Starkey argued his views had been distorted, that he referred only to a "particular sort" of 'Black' culture, and that "black educationalists" Tony Sewell and Katharine Birbalsingh supported the substance of his ''Newsnight'' comments..For Katharine Birbalsingh's comments, see .|group="nb"}}

Personal life

Starkey lives with his partner, James Brown, a publisher and book designer. The couple have two homes; a house in Highbury and a manor house in Kent. He was appointed CBE in the Queen's 2007 Birthday Honours list, for services to history. He is an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society.

Work

;Books

''This Land of England'' (1985) (with David Souden)

''The Reign of Henry VIII: Personalities and Politics'' (1986)

''Revolution Reassessed: Revisions in the History of Tudor Government and Administration'' (1986) (Editor with Christopher Coleman)

''The English Court from the Wars of the Roses to the Civil War'' (1987)

''Rivals in Power: the Lives and Letters of the Great Tudor Dynasties'' (1990)

''Henry VIII: A European Court in England'' (1991)

''The Inventory of Henry VIII: The Transcript'', Volume 1 (1998) (with Philip Ward and Alistair Hawkyard)

''Elizabeth: Apprenticeship'' (2000) (published in North America as ''Elizabeth: The struggle for the throne'')

''The Stuart Courts'' - Foreword (2000) (Edited by Eveline Cruickshanks)

''The Inventory of Henry VIII: Essays and Illustrations'', Volume 2, (2002) (with Philip Ward and Alistair Hawkyard)

''The Inventory of Henry VIII: Essays and Illustrations'', Volume 3, (2002) (with Philip Ward and Alistair Hawkyard)

''The Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII'' (2003)

''Elizabeth I: The Exhibition Catalogue'' (2003)

''The Books of King Henry VIII and His Wives'' - Introduction and Preface (2004) (James P. Carley)

''The Monarchy of England: The Beginnings'' (2004)

''Monarchy: From the Middle Ages to Modernity'' (2006)

''Making History: Antiquaries in Britain, 1707-2007'' - Introduction (2007) (Edited by Sarah McCarthy, Bernard Nurse, and David Gaimster)

''Henry: Virtuous Prince'' (2008)

Introduction to ''Henry VIII; Man & Monarch'' (Susan Doran, ed. published by the British Library, 2009)

Crown and Country (Harper Press, 2010)

Introduction to ''Fatal Colours: Towton 1461 - England's Most Brutal Battle'' by George Goodwin (2011)

;Television

''Henry VIII'' (1998, revised 2001)

''Elizabeth'' (2000)

''The Six Wives of Henry VIII'' (2001)

''Edward and Mary: The Unknown Tudors'' (2002)

''David Starkey: Reinventing the Royals'' (2002)

''Monarchy by David Starkey'' (2004–2007)

''The Tudors'' (2007–2010) technical advisor

''Henry VIII: The Mind of a Tyrant'' (2009)

''Kate and William: Romance and the Royals'' (2011)

;Applications

''Kings and Queens by David Starkey'' for iPhone and iPad (2011)

References

;Footnotes

;Notes

Further reading

External links

Category:1945 births Category:Living people Category:Academics of the London School of Economics Category:Alumni of Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Category:English atheists Category:English historians Category:English radio personalities Category:English television presenters Category:Fellows of Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge Category:Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London Category:LGBT people from England Category:LGBT television personalities Category:People from Kendal Category:University Challenge contestants

de:David Starkey fr:David Starkey no:David Starkey sv:David Starkey

Jessye Norman (born September 15, 1945) is an American opera singer. Norman is a well-known contemporary opera singer and recitalist, and is one of the highest paid performers in classical music. A dramatic soprano, Norman is associated in particular with the roles of Aida, Cassandre, Alceste, and Leonore.

Life and career

Early life and musical education

Jessye Mae Norman was born on September 15, 1945 in Augusta, Georgia to Silas Norman, an insurance salesman, and Janie King-Norman, a school teacher. She was one of five children in a family of amateur musicians; her mother and grandmother were both pianists, her father a singer in a local choir. Norman's mother insisted that she start piano lessons at an early age. Norman attended Charles T. Walker Elementary School, A.R. Johnson Junior High School, and Lucy C. Laney Senior High School, all in downtown Augusta.

Norman proved to be a talented singer as a young child, singing gospel songs at Mount Calvary Baptist Church at the age of four. At the age of nine, Norman heard opera for the first time on the radio and was immediately an opera fan. She started listening to recordings of Marian Anderson and Leontyne Price whom Norman credits as being inspiring figures in her career. At the age of 16, Norman entered the Marian Anderson Vocal Competition in Philadelphia which, although she did not win, led to her being offered a full scholarship to Howard University, in Washington, D.C. While at Howard, Norman sang in the university chorus and as a professional soloist at the Lincoln Temple United Church of Christ, while studying voice with Carolyn Grant. In 1965, along with 32 other female students and 4 female faculty, she became a founding member of the Delta Nu Chapter of Sigma Alpha Iota. In 1966, she won the National Society of Arts and Letters singing competition. After graduating in 1967 with a degree in music, she began graduate-level studies at the Peabody Conservatory in Baltimore and later at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan, from which she earned a Masters Degree in 1968. During this time Norman studied voice with Elizabeth Mannion and Pierre Bernac.

Early career (1969–1979)

After graduating, Norman, like many young musicians at the time, moved to Europe to establish herself. In 1969 she won the ARD International Music Competition in Munich and landed a three-year contract with the Deutsche Oper Berlin. She made her operatic début that same year as Elisabeth in Richard Wagner's ''Tannhäuser'' at the Deutsche Oper Berlin. Critics at the time described Norman as having "the greatest voice since the German soprano Lotte Lehmann."

In subsequent years Norman performed with various German and Italian opera companies appearing often as princesses or other noble figures. Norman was exceptional at portraying a commanding and noble bearing. This ability was partly due to her uncommon height and size, but more so as a result of her unique, rich, and powerful voice. Norman's range was uncommonly wide, encompassing all female voice registers from contralto to high dramatic soprano. In 1970 she made her Italian début in Florence in Handel's ''Deborah''. In 1971, Norman made her début at the Maggio Musicale in Florence appearing as Sélica in Meyerbeer's ''L'Africaine''. That year she also sang the role of Countess Almaviva in Mozart's ''The Marriage of Figaro'' at the Berlin Festival and recorded the role that same year with the BBC Orchestra under the direction of Colin Davis. The recording was a finalist for the Montreux International Record Award competition and brought Norman much exposure to music listeners in Europe and the United States.

In 1972, Norman debuted at La Scala, where she sang the title role in Verdi's ''Aida'' and at London's Royal Opera at Covent Garden, where she sang the role of Cassandra in Berlioz's ''Les Troyens''. Norman appeared as Aida again in a concert version that same year in her first well-publicized American performance at the Hollywood Bowl. This was followed by an all-Wagner concert at the Tanglewood Festival in Lenox, Massachusetts, and a recital tour of the country, after which Norman went back to Europe for several engagements. Norman returned to the US briefly to make her first-ever New York City recital where she appeared as part of the "Great Performers" series at Alice Tully Hall in Lincoln Center in 1973.

In 1975 Norman moved to London and had no staged opera appearances for the next five years. While she gave as the reason for her withdrawal the need to fully develop her voice, others felt that this was a period of concern for her weight and thus her stage image. However, Norman remained internationally active as a recitalist and soloist in works such as Mendelssohn's ''Elijah'' and Franck's ''Les Béatitudes''. Norman returned to North America again in 1976 and 1977 to make an extensive concert tour, but it was not until many years later that she would make her US Opera début or appear frequently in the United States. Only after Norman had established herself in Europe's leading opera houses and festivals—including the Edinburgh Festival, Salzburg Festival, Aix-en-Provence Festival, and the Stuttgart Opera—did Norman set out to establish herself in the United States. Norman toured Europe throughout the 1970s, giving recitals of works by Schubert, Mahler, Wagner, Brahms, Satie, Messiaen, and several contemporary American composers, to great critical acclaim.

Mid-career (1980–89)

In October 1980 Norman returned to the operatic stage in the title role of Richard Strauss's ''Ariadne auf Naxos'' at the Hamburg State Opera in Germany. Norman made her United States opera début in 1982 with the Opera Company of Philadelphia, appearing in Stravinsky's ''Oedipus Rex'' as Jocasta and in Purcell's ''Dido and Aeneas'' as Dido. Norman followed these with her début at the Metropolitan Opera in 1983, appearing in Berlioz's ''Les Troyens'' as both Cassandra and Dido, a production which marked the company's 100th anniversary season. According to the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', "By the mid-1980s she was one of the most popular and highly regarded dramatic soprano singers in the world." She was invited to sing at the second inauguration of U.S. President Ronald Reagan on January 21, 1985, an invitation which she debated accepting, as an African American and a Democrat (as well as a nuclear disarmament activist). In the end, she did accept and sang the folk song "Simple Gifts". In 1986, Norman sang at Elizabeth II's sixtieth birthday celebration. That same year Norman appeared as a soloist in Strauss's ''Four Last Songs'' with the Berlin Philharmonic during its tour of the USA. In 1987, Norman joined the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra and Herbert von Karajan in possibly the greatest rendition of the Liebestod from "Tristan und Isolde" by Wagner in a historical concert (filmed and recorded audio by Deutsche Grammophone) at the Salzburg Festival. The concert was then repeated some weeks later in Berlin, with Karajan and the Berlin Philharmonic.

Over the years Norman has not been afraid to expand her talent into less familiar areas. In 1988 she sang a concert performance of Poulenc's one-act opera ''La Voix Humaine'' ("The Human Voice"), based on Jean Cocteau's 1930 play of the same name. During the 1980s and early 1990s, Norman produced numerous award-winning recordings, and many of her performances were televised. In addition to opera, many of Norman's recordings and performances during this time focused upon art songs, lieder, oratorios, and orchestral works. Her interpretation of Strauss's ''Four Last Songs'' is especially acclaimed. Its slowness is controversial, but the tonal qualities of her voice are ideal for these final works of the Romantic German lieder tradition.

Norman is also known for the ''Gurre-Lieder'' of Arnold Schoenberg and for Schoenberg's one-woman opera ''Erwartung''. In 1989 Norman appeared at the Metropolitan Opera for a performance of ''Erwartung'' that marked the company's first single-character production. This opera was presented in a double bill with Bartók's ''Bluebeard's Castle'' with Norman playing the role of Judith. Both operas were broadcast nationally. That same year, Norman was the featured soloist with Zubin Mehta and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra in its opening concert of its 148th season, which was telecast live to the nation by PBS. Norman also performed at the Hong Kong Cultural Center opening and gave a recital at Taiwan's National Concert Hall.

Also in 1989, Norman was invited to sing the French national anthem, ''La Marseillaise,'' to celebrate the 200th anniversary of the French Revolution on July 14. Her rendition was delivered at the Place de la Concorde in Paris, in a costume designed by Azzedine Alaïa as part of an elaborate pageant orchestrated by avant-garde designer Jean-Paul Goude.

Later career (1990–present)

Since the early 1990s Norman has lived in Croton-on-Hudson, New York in a secluded estate known as "The White Gates" which she purchased from television personality Allen Funt. In 1990, Norman performed at Tchaikovsky's 150th Birthday Gala in Leningrad and she made her Lyric Opera of Chicago début in the title role of Gluck's ''Alceste''. In 1991 Norman sang for the 700th Celebration Party of Swiss National Day. That same year, she performed in a concert recorded live with Lawrence Foster and the Lyon Opera Orchestra amid the tantalizing acoustics at Paris's Notre Dame cathedral. In 1992 Norman sang Jocasta in Stravinsky's ''Oedipus rex'' at the opening operatic production at the new Saito Kinen Festival in the Japanese Alps near Matsumoto. In 1993, Norman sang the title role in the Metropolitan Opera's production of ''Ariadne auf Naxos''. In 1994, Norman sang at the funeral of former first lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. In September 1995, she was again the featured soloist with the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, this time under Kurt Masur's direction, in a gala concert telecast live to the nation by PBS making the opening of the orchestra's 153rd season. In 1996 Norman gave a highly lauded performance as the title character in the Metropolitan Opera's premier production of Janáček's ''The Makropulos Case''.

Starting in the mid 1990s, Norman began to move away from soprano stage-roles migrating heavily toward mezzo soprano roles. In January 1997, Norman performed at the second inauguration of U.S. President Bill Clinton. Jessye Norman's 1998–1999 performances included a recital at Carnegie Hall in New York City, which had an unusual program incorporating sacred music of Duke Ellington, scored for jazz combo, string quartet and piano, and featuring the Alvin Ailey Repertory Dance Ensemble. Other performances during the season included ''Das Lied von der Erde'', with Seiji Ozawa and the Boston Symphony Orchestra, a television special for Christmas filmed in her home town of Augusta, Georgia, as well as a spring recital tour, which included performances in Tel Aviv. The following season also brought performances of the sacred music of Duke Ellington to London and Vienna, together with a summer European tour, which included performances at the Salzburg Festival.

In 1999 Norman collaborated with choreographer-dancer Bill T. Jones in a project for New York City's Lincoln Center, called "How! Do! We! Do!" In 2000, Norman later released an album, ''I Was Born in Love with You'', featuring the songs of Michel Legrand. The recording, reviewed as a jazz crossover project, featured Legrand on piano, Ron Carter on bass, and Grady Tate on drums. In February and March 2001, Norman was featured at Carnegie Hall in a three-part concert series. With James Levine as her pianist, the concerts were a significant arts event, replete with an 80-page program booklet featuring a newly commissioned watercolor portrait of Norman by David Hockney. In 2002, Norman performed at the opening of Singapore's Esplanade Theatres on the bay.

On March 11, 2002, Norman performed "America the Beautiful" at a memorial service unveiling two monumental columns of light at the site of the former World Trade Center, as a memorial for the victims of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on New York City. In 2002 she returned to Augusta to announce that she would fund a pilot school of the arts for children in Richmond County. Classes commenced at St. John United Methodist Church in the fall of 2003. In November 2004, a documentary of Miss Norman's life and work to date, was created. This film, directed by André Heller, with Othmar Schmiderer as director of photography and produced by DOR-FILM of Vienna, chronicles the music, the social and political issues, the inspiration and dreams that have combined to make this singer unique in her profession. In 2006, Norman collaborated with the modern dance choreographer, Trey McIntyre, for a special performance during the summer at the Vail, Colorado Dance Festival.

In March 2009, Ms. Norman curated ''Honor!'', a celebration of the African American cultural legacy. The festival honors the courageous African American trailblazers and artists of the past with concerts, recitals, lectures, panel discussions, and exhibitions hosted by Carnegie Hall, the Apollo Theater, The Cathedral of St. John the Divine, and other sites around New York City.

After more than thirty years on stage, Norman no longer performs ensemble opera, concentrating instead on recitals and concerts. In addition to her busy performance schedule, Jessye Norman serves on the Boards of Directors for Carnegie Hall, the New York Public Library, the New York Botanical Garden, City-Meals-on-Wheels in New York City, Dance Theatre of Harlem, National Music Foundation, and Elton John AIDS Foundation. She is a member of the board as well as National spokesperson for the LUPUS Foundation, and spokesperson for Partnership for the Homeless. And in her home town of Augusta, Georgia, she serves on the Board of Trustees of Paine College and the Augusta Opera Association.

Opera roles

These are notable opera roles that Norman has performed. :* Aïda, ''Aïda'' (Verdi) :* Alceste, ''Alceste'' (Gluck) :* Ariadne, ''Ariadne auf Naxos'' (Richard Strauss) :* Armida, ''Armida'' (Haydn) :* Carmen, ''Carmen'' (Bizet) :* Cassandre, ''Les Troyens'' (Berlioz) :* Countess Almaviva, ''The Marriage of Figaro'' (Mozart) :* Dido, ''Dido and Aeneas'' (Purcell) :* Donna Elvira, ''Don Giovanni'' (Mozart) :* Elisabeth, ''Tannhäuser'' (Wagner) :* Elle, ''La voix humaine'' (Poulenc) :* Elsa, ''Lohengrin'' (Wagner) :* Emilia Marty, ''The Makropulos Affair'' (Janáček) :* Giulietta, ''The Tales of Hoffman'' (Offenbach) :* Hélène, ''La belle Hélène'' (Offenbach) :* Idamante, ''Idomeneo'' (Mozart) :* Isolde, ''Tristan und Isolde'' (Wagner) (Act II in Concert) :* Jocasta, ''Oedipus rex'' (Stravinsky) :* Judith, ''Bluebeard's Castle'' (Bartók) :* Kundry, ''Parsifal'' (Wagner) :* Giulietta di Kelbar, ''Un giorno di regno'' (Verdi) :* Leonore, ''Fidelio'' (Beethoven) :* Madame Lidoine, ''Dialogues of the Carmelites'' (Poulenc) :* Marguerite, ''La damnation de Faust'' (Berlioz) :* Medora, ''Il Corsaro'' (Verdi) :* Pénélope, ''Pénélope'' (Fauré) :* Phedra, ''Hippolyte et Aricie'' (Rameau) :* Rosina, ''La vera costanza'' (Haydn) :* Salome, ''Salome'' (Richard Strauss) :* Salome, ''Hérodiade'' (Massenet) :* Santuzza, ''Cavalleria rusticana'' (Pietro Mascagni) :* Sélica, ''L'Africaine'' (Meyerbeer) :* Sieglinde, ''Die Walküre'' (Wagner) :* Third Norn, ''Götterdämmerung'' (Wagner) :* Woman, ''Erwartung'' (Schoenberg)

Oratorio and orchestral parts performed

These are among the notable oratorio and orchestral parts that Norman has performed. :* (Beethoven), Missa solemnis :* (Beethoven), Symphony No. 9 in D minor, soloist :* (Alban Berg), ''Der Wein'' :* (Alban Berg), ''Sieben frühe Lieder'', ''Altenberg Lieder'', Jugendlieder :* (Berlioz), ''Les Nuits d'été'' :* (Berlioz), ''La mort de Cléopâtre'', Cléopâtre :* (Berlioz), ''Romeo et Juliette'', Juliette :* (Brahms), Lieder :* (Brahms), A German Requiem :* (Brahms), Alto Rhapsody :* (Bruckner), Te Deum [and] Helgoland [and] 150 Psalm :* (Chausson), ''Poème de l'amour et de la mer'', op. 19 :* (Chausson), ''Chanson perpétuelle'', op. 37 :* (Debussy), ''L'Enfant prodigue'' [and] ''La damoiselle élue'' :* (Henri Duparc), Mélodies :* (César Franck), ''Les Béatitudes'' (oratorio) :* (Haendel), ''Deborah'', Deborah :* (Mahler), ''Das Lied von der Erde'' :* (Mahler), ''Des Knaben Wunderhorn'' :* (Mahler), ''Songs of a Wayfarer''. :* (Mahler), ''Kindertotenlieder''. :* (Mahler), Symphony No. 2 "Resurrection", soloist :* (Mahler), Symphony No. 3, soloist :* (Mozart), ''Die Gaertnerin aus Liebe'' :* (Francis Poulenc), Mélodies :* (Ravel), ''Shéhérazade'' :* (Ravel), ''Deux mélodies hébraïques'' :* (Ravel), ''Chansons madécasses'' :* (Erik Satie), Mélodies :* (Arnold Schoenberg), ''Gurrelieder'' :* (Arnold Schoenberg), ''Brettl-Lieder'' :* (Franz Schubert), Lieder :* (Franz Schubert), Erlkönig :* (Robert Schumann), ''Frauenliebe und Leben'', op. 42 :* (Robert Schumann), Liederkreis, op. 39 :* (Richard Strauss), ''Four Last Songs'' (Philips, 1983). :* (Richard Strauss), Lieder with piano :* (Michael Tippett), ''A Child of Our Time'' :* (Wagner), ''Wesendonck Lieder'' :* (Verdi), ''Requiem'' :* (Hugo Wolf), Lieder

Concert and recital work

Throughout her career, Norman has spent much of her time giving recitals and concerts and continues to do so today. In addition to her operatic recitals, Norman has given regular recitals encompassing the classical German repertory as well as contemporary masterpieces, such as Schoenberg's ''Gurre-Lieder'' and the French moderns, which she invariably performed in the original tongue.

This combination of scholarship and artistry contributed to her consistently successful career as one of the most versatile concert and operatic singers of her time. Often cited for her innovative programming and fervent advocacy of contemporary music, she has earned the recognition of "one of those once-in-a-generation singers who isn’t simply following in the footsteps of others, but is staking out her own niche in the history of singing."

Norman frequently collaborates with the world's best symphony orchestras, chamber ensembles, and other classical solo artists in her recital work. She has performed with the Los Angeles Philharmonic, New York Philharmonic, London Philharmonic, Israel Philharmonic, Orchestre de Paris, Stockholm Philharmonic, Vienna Philharmonic, and Berlin Philharmonic to name a few.

Norman premiered the song cycle ''woman.life.song'' by composer Judith Weir, a work commissioned for her by Carnegie Hall, with texts by Toni Morrison, Maya Angelou and Clarissa Pinkola Estés; performed a selection of sacred music of Duke Ellington; recorded a jazz album, ''Jessye Norman Sings Michel Legrand''; and was the soprano co-lead in Vangelis' project Mythodea.Norman commended herself in Mussorgsky's songs, which she performed in Moscow in the original Russian. Other of Norman's diverse projects have included her 1984 album, ''With a Song in My Heart'', which contains numbers from films and musical comedies, and a 1990 performance of American spirituals with soprano Kathleen Battle at Carnegie Hall.

Voice type

Norman is most often referred to as a dramatic soprano but unlike most dramatic sopranos, Norman has become known for roles more traditionally sung by other types of voices. From her student days Norman had been selective about her repertoire, heeding her own instincts and interests more than the advice of her teachers or requests of her management. In the beginning of her career, this tendency put her at odds with the Deutsche Opera and compelled her to seek out musical works on her own that she felt were more suitable to her vocal skills. Norman told John Gruen of the New York Times, "As for my voice, it cannot be categorized—and I like it that way, because I sing things that would be considered in the dramatic, mezzo or spinto range. I like so many different kinds of music that I've never allowed myself the limitations of one particular range."

Some vocal critics assert that Norman is not a dramatic soprano but has in fact a rare soprano voice type known as a Falcon. The Falcon voice is an intermediate voice type between the soprano and the mezzo soprano that is similar to the dramatic soprano but with a darker-color. Norman, however, refuses to place any labels on her voice. At the age of twenty-three, when asked by an interviewer in Germany, how she would characterize her voice, she replied that, "pigeonholes are only comfortable for pigeons."

Over the years Norman's technical expertise has been among her most critically praised attributes. In a review of one of her recitals at New York City's Carnegie Hall, New York Times contributor Allen Hughes wrote that Norman "has one of the most opulent voices before the public today, and, as discriminating listeners are aware, her performances are backed by extraordinary preparation, both musical and otherwise." Another Carnegie Hall appearance prompted these words from New York Times contributor Bernard Holland: "If one added up all the things that Jessye Norman does well as a singer, the total would assuredly exceed that of any other soprano before the public. At Miss Norman's recital ... tones were produced, colors manipulated, words projected and interpretive points made—all with fanatic finesse."

Lawsuits

In March 1984 Norman filed a 15 million dollar lawsuit (in Manhattan Supreme Court) against two Manhattan record stores, Mr. Tape and Town Records Store, for distributing unauthorized recordings on both cassette tape and vinyl LP of her performances over the previous 13 years.

In 1995, Norman filed a 3 million dollar suit against ''Classic CD'' magazine claiming that an article in the November 1994 issue depicted her "in a grotesque and exaggerated manner." Norman said the article, entitled "Deadlier Than The Male", mocked her speech in an effort "to ridicule and caricature her and all persons of African-American background and descent." After a five year battle, Norman eventually lost the lawsuit.

Honors and awards

In 1966 she won the National Society of Arts and Letters singing competition. In 1968 took first prize at the ARD International Music Competition in Munich. In 1982 won a Gramophone Award for her recording of Strauss' "Four Last Songs". In 1982 was named Musical America magazine's Musician of the Year. In 1982 was awarded honorary doctorate from Howard University. In 1984 was awarded honorary doctorate from the Boston Conservatory of Music and the University of the South. In 1984 won a Grammy Award for Best Classical Vocal Soloist Performance for "Ravel: Songs of Maurice Ravel". In 1984 declared Commandeur de l'ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French government, 1984 In 1984 France's National Museum of Natural History named an orchid for her. In 1998 she was awarded an honorary doctorate from Harvard University. In 1988 won a Grammy Award for Best Opera Recording for "Wagner: Lohengrin". In 1989 won Grammy Award for Best Opera Recording for "Wagner: Die Walkuere". In 1989 awarded the Légion d'honneur by French President Mitterrand. In 1990 named Honorary Ambassador to the United Nations by UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar. In 1990 awarded an honorary Doctor in Music award from Juilliard School of Music. In 1991 her home town, Augusta, Georgia, dedicated Riverwalk Augusta's amphitheater, named in her honor. Norman was a featured performer during the opening ceremonies of the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia. Winner of the 1997 Radcliffe Medal, presented annually by the Radcliffe College Alumnae Association to honor individuals whose lives and work have had a significant impact on society. In March 1997, Jessye Norman was honored by New York's Associated Black Charities at the 11th Annual Black History Makers Awards Dinner for her contributions to the arts and to African American culture. In December 1997, Jessye Norman was invested with the USA's highest award in the performing arts, the Kennedy Center Honors, making history as the youngest recipient in the Honors' 20-year existence. In 1998 won a Grammy Award for Best Opera Recording for "Bartók: Bluebeard's Castle". In 1999 inducted into the Georgia Music Hall of Fame. In 2000 was awarded the Eleanor Roosevelt Val-Kill Medal for her work in the fight against lupus, breast cancer, AIDS, and hunger. In 2000 was awarded the Outstanding Alumnae by Howard University. In 2006 she received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. On September 22, 2006 the city of Pasadena, California, named September 22 "Jessye Norman Day" after she gave a performance at Blair IB Magnet High School. She is a lifelong member of the Girls Scouts of America as well as of Great Britain's Royal Academy of Music. Awarded France's Grand Prix du Disque for albums of lieder by Wagner, Schumann, Mahler and Schubert.

Won Amsterdam's Edison Award; and recording honors in Belgium, Spain, and Germany.

She was winner of an Ace Award from the National Cable Television Association for "Jessye Norman at Notre Dame." Jessye Norman has received honorary doctorates from more than 30 colleges, universities, and conservatories including Jesus College, Cambridge, the Manhattan School of Music, University of Michigan, Yale University, Northwestern University and Brandeis University. In 2009, Jessye Norman was awarded the National Medal of Arts by President Barack Obama.

References

Further reading

Gates, Henry Louis and Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks (eds.) (2004) "Norman, Jessye" ''African American Lives'' Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 629–631, ISBN 0-19-516024-X

External links

Category:African American female singers Category:African American opera singers Category:American sopranos Category:Operatic sopranos Category:United States National Medal of Arts recipients Category:Chevaliers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Category:Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music Category:Kennedy Center honorees Category:Howard University alumni Category:University of Michigan alumni Category:American Protestants Category:People from Augusta, Georgia Category:1945 births Category:Living people

ca:Jessye Norman da:Jessye Norman de:Jessye Norman es:Jessye Norman fr:Jessye Norman hy:Ջեսսի Նորման it:Jessye Norman he:ג'סי נורמן nl:Jessye Norman ja:ジェシー・ノーマン pt:Jessye Norman ru:Норман, Джесси fi:Jessye Norman sv:Jessye Norman

thumb|Donald Norman at the About, With and For conference in 2005

Donald Arthur Norman (born December 25, 1935), is an academic in the field of cognitive science, design and usability engineering and a co-founder and consultant with the Nielsen Norman Group. He is the author of the book ''The Design of Everyday Things''.

Much of Norman's work involves the advocacy of user-centered design. His books all have the underlying purpose of furthering the field of design, from doors to computers. Norman has recently taken a controversial stance in saying that the design research community has had little impact in the innovation of products, and that whereas academics can help in refining existing products, it is technologists that accomplish the breakthroughs.

Norman splits his time between co-directing the dual-degree MBA and Engineering program Northwestern University and consulting with the Nielsen Norman Group. Norman announced that he would no longer teach full-time after the 2009-2010 academic year.

Norman is an active Distinguished Visiting Professor at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science & Technology where he spends two months a year teaching. He also holds the title of Professor Emeritus of Cognitive Science at the University of California, San Diego.

He is on numerous educational, private, and public sector advisory boards including the editorial board of Encyclopædia Britannica.

Early academics

In 1957 Norman received an Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS) from MIT. Norman continued through college until 1962, in the process earning M.S. in EECS and a Doctorate of Philosophy in Psychology from the University of Pennsylvania.

After graduating, Norman took up a Postdoctoral Fellowship at the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard University and within a year became a Lecturer.

After four years with the Center, Norman took a position as an Associate Professor in the Psychology Department at University of California, San Diego (UCSD). Although he started as an experimental and mathematical psychologist, Norman's focus shifted to cognitive science. Norman eventually became founding chair of the Department of Cognitive Science and chair of the Department of Psychology.

At UCSD, Norman was a founder of the Institute for Cognitive Science and one of the organizers of the Cognitive Science Society (along with Roger Schank, Allan Collins, and others), which held its first meeting at the UCSD campus in 1979.

Cognitive engineering career

Norman made the transition from cognitive science to cognitive engineering by entering the field as a consultant and writer. The article "The Trouble with Unix" in Datamation catapulted him to a position of prominence in the computer world. Soon after, his career took off outside of academia, although he still remained active at UCSD until 1993. Norman continued his work to further human centered design by serving on numerous University and Government advisory boards such as with the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). He currently serves on numerous committees and advisory boards like at Motorola, the Toyota Information Technology Center, TED Conference, Panasonic, ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' and many more.

Norman published several important books during his time at UCSD, one of which, ''User Centered System Design'', obliquely referred to the university in the initials of its title.

In 1995, Norman left UCSD to join Apple Computer, initially as an Apple Fellow as a User Experience Architect (The first to use the phrase User Experience in a title), and then as the Vice President of the Advanced Technology Group. He later worked for Hewlett-Packard before joining with Jakob Nielsen to form the Nielsen Norman Group in 1998. He returned to academia as a professor of computer science at Northwestern University where he is co-Director of the Segal Design Institute.

Norman has received many awards for his work. He received an honorary degree from the University of Padua in Padua, Italy. In 2001 he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery, and in 2006 received the Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science.

User-centered design

In his book ''The Design of Everyday Things'', originally titled ''The Psychology of Everyday Things'', Norman describes the psychology behind what he deems good and bad design, through case studies, and proposes design principles. He exalts the importance of design in our everyday lives, and the consequences of errors caused by bad design.

In the book, Norman uses the term "user-centered design" to describe design based on the needs of the user, leaving aside what he deems secondary issues like aesthetics. User-centered design involves simplifying the structure of tasks, making things visible, getting the mapping right, exploiting the powers of constraint, designing for error, explaining affordances and seven stages of action.

Other topics of the book include:

The Psychopathology of Everyday Things

The Psychology of Everyday Actions

Knowledge in the Head and in the World

Knowing What to Do

To Err Is Human

The Design Challenge

Quotes

"Academics get paid for being clever, not for being right."

Partial bibliography

Psychology

''Human information processing: An introduction to psychology (1972) in collaboration with Peter H. Lindsay (first author)''

''Memory and attention'' (1977)

''Learning and memory'' (1982)

Usability

''Direct manipulation interfaces (1985)'' in collaboration with E. L. Hutchins (first author) and J.D. Hollan

''User Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction'' (1986) (editor in collaboration with Stephen Draper)

''The Design of Everyday Things'' (1988, originally under the title ''The Psychology of Everyday Things'') (Newprint 2002)

''Turn signals are the facial expressions of automobiles'' (1992)

''Things That Make Us Smart'' (1993)

''The Invisible Computer'' (1998)

''Emotional Design'' (2004)

''The Design of Future Things'' (2007)

''Living with Complexity'', (2010)

''Defending Human Attributes in the Age of the Machine'' CD-ROM by the Voyager Company combining ''Design of Every Day Things'', ''Turn signals are the facial expressions of automobiles'', ''Things That Make Us Smart'', and various technical reports (1994)

See also

Executive system

Human action cycle

Human-computer interaction

Interaction design

References

External links

Publications by Donald Norman from Interaction-Design.org

List of Donald Norman articles

Donald Norman at Userati

Lecture by Donald Norman on "The Design of Future Things" (Stanford University, February 9, 2007)

Category:Living people Category:Apple Inc. employees Category:Cognitive scientists Category:Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni Category:University of Pennsylvania alumni Category:Harvard University faculty Category:University of California, San Diego faculty Category:Northwestern University faculty Category:American computer scientists Category:Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery Category:Human-computer interaction researchers Category:1935 births

ca:Donald Norman da:Donald Norman de:Donald Norman es:Donald Norman fr:Donald Norman ko:도널드 노먼 it:Donald Norman ja:ドナルド・ノーマン pt:Donald Norman fi:Donald Norman