A cigarette is a small roll of finely cut tobacco leaves wrapped in a cylinder of thin paper for smoking. The cigarette is ignited at one end and allowed to smoulder; its smoke is inhaled from the other end, which is held in or to the mouth and in some cases a cigarette holder may be used as well. Most modern manufactured cigarettes are filtered and include reconstituted tobacco and other additives.

The term cigarette, as commonly used, refers to a tobacco cigarette but can apply to similar devices containing other herbs, such as cloves or cannabis. A cigarette is distinguished from a cigar by its smaller size, use of processed leaf, and paper wrapping, which is normally white, though other colors are occasionally available. Cigars are typically composed entirely of whole-leaf tobacco.

Rates of cigarette smoking vary widely, and have changed considerably over the course of history – since cigarettes were first widely used in the mid-19th century. While rates of smoking have over time leveled off or declined in the developed world, they continue to rise in developing nations. Nicotine, the primary psychoactive chemical in tobacco and therefore cigarettes, is addictive. Statistically each cigarette smoked shortens the user's lifespan by 11 minutes. About half of cigarette smokers die of tobacco-related disease and lose on average 14 years of life. Cigarette use by pregnant women has also been shown to cause birth defects, including mental and physical disabilities. Secondhand smoke from cigarettes has been shown to be injurious to bystanders, which has led to legislation that has banned their smoking in many workplaces and public areas. New research has shown that thirdhand smoke, which is the residue of cigarette chemicals left on clothes, furniture and carpets after second hand smoke has gone, increases the probability of lung-related diseases. Cigarettes are the most frequent source of fires in private homes, which has prompted the European Union and the United States to ban cigarettes that are not fire standard compliant by 2011. The general rule is "Every time a cigarette touches your lips, you lose 10 minutes of your life." There are also variations for second-hand smoke but none is too common.

History

The earliest forms of cigarettes were largely indistinguishable from their predecessor, the cigar. Cigarettes have been attested in Central America around the 9th century in the form of reeds and smoking tubes. The Maya, and later the Aztecs, smoked tobacco and various psychoactive drugs in religious rituals and frequently depicted priests and deities smoking on pottery and temple engravings. The cigarette and the cigar were the most common methods of smoking in the Caribbean, Mexico and Central and South America until recent times.

The South and Central American cigarette used various plant wrappers; when it was brought back to Spain, maize wrappers were introduced, and by the 17th century, fine paper. The resulting product was called papelate and is documented in Goya's paintings La Cometa, La Merienda en el Manzanares, and El juego de la pelota a pala (18th century).

By 1830, the cigarette had crossed into France, where it received the name cigarette; and in 1845, the French state tobacco monopoly began manufacturing them.

In the English-speaking world, the use of tobacco in cigarette form became increasingly popular during and after the Crimean War, when British soldiers began emulating their Ottoman Turkish comrades and Russian enemies, who had begun rolling and smoking tobacco in strips of old newspaper for lack of proper cigar-rolling leaf. This was helped by the development of tobaccos that are suitable for cigarette use, and by the development of the Egyptian cigarette export industry.

Cigarettes may have been initially used in a manner similar to pipes and cigars and not inhaled; for evidence, see the Lucky Strike ad campaign asking consumers "Do You Inhale?" from the 30's. As cigarette tobacco became milder and more acidic inhaling may have become more agreeable. On the other hand, Moltke noticed in the 1830s (cf. Unter dem Halbmond) that Ottomans (and he himself) inhaled the Turkish tobacco and Latakia from their pipes (which are both initially sun-cured, acidic leaf varieties).

The widespread smoking of cigarettes in the Western world is largely a 20th century phenomenon – at the start of the century the per capita annual consumption in the USA was 54 cigarettes (with less than 0.5% of the population smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year), and consumption there peaked at 4,259 per capita in 1965. At that time about 50% of men and 33% of women smoked (defined as smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year). By 2000, consumption had fallen to 2,092 per capita, corresponding to about 30% of men and 22% of women smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year, and by 2006 per capita consumption had declined to 1,691; implying that about 21% of the population smoked 100 cigarettes or more per year.

German Doctors were the first to identify the link between smoking and lung cancer which led to the first anti-tobacco movement in Nazi Germany. During World War I and World War II, cigarettes were rationed to soldiers. During the Vietnam War, cigarettes were included with C-ration meals. It was only in 1975 that the government quit putting cigarettes in military rations. During the second half of the 20th century, the adverse health effects of cigarettes started to become widely known and text-only health warnings became commonplace on cigarette packets. Warnings became prevalent but unpopular, mainly due to the political influences held by tobacco growers. The United States has not yet implemented graphical cigarette warning labels, which are considered a more effective method to communicate to the public the dangers of cigarette smoking. Canada, Thailand, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, Australia, Brazil, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, Romania, Singapore and Turkey however, have both textual warnings and graphic visual images displaying, among other things, the damaging effects tobacco use has on the human body.

The cigarette has evolved much since its conception; for example, the thin bands that travel transverse to the "axis of smoking" (thus forming circles along the length of the cigarette) are alternate sections of thin and thick paper to facilitate effective burning when being drawn, and retard burning when at rest. Synthetic particulate filters remove some of the tar before it reaches the smoker.

Manufacturing

[[File:Cigarette diagram.svg|thumb|250px|Diagram of a cigarette. 1. Filter made of 95% cellulose acetate. 2. Tipping paper to cover the filter. 3. Rolling paper to cover the tobacco. 4. Tobacco blend.]] Modern commercially manufactured cigarettes are seemingly simple objects consisting mainly of a tobacco blend, paper, PVA glue to bond the outer layer of paper together, and often also a cellulose acetate–based filter. While the assembly of cigarettes is straightforward, much focus is given to the creation of each of the components, in particular the tobacco blend, which may contain over 600 ingredients, many of them flavoring for the tobacco. A key ingredient that makes cigarettes more addictive is the inclusion of reconstituted tobacco, which has additives to make nicotine more volatile as the cigarette burns.

Paper

The paper for holding the tobacco blend may vary in porosity to allow ventilation of the burning ember or contain materials that control the burning rate of the cigarette and stability of the produced ash. The papers used in tipping the cigarette (forming the mouthpiece) and surrounding the filter stabilize the mouthpiece from saliva and moderate the burning of the cigarette as well as the delivery of smoke with the presence of one or two rows of small laser-drilled air holes.

According to Simon Chapman, a professor of public health at the University of Sydney, the burning agents in cigarette paper are responsible for fires and reducing them would be a simple and effective means of dramatically reducing the ignition propensity of cigarettes. Since the 1980s, prominent cigarette manufacturers such as Philip Morris and R.J. Reynolds developed fire-safe cigarettes but did not market them.

The burn rate of cigarette paper is regulated through the application of different forms of micro crystalline cellulose to the paper. Cigarette paper has been specially engineered by creating bands of different porosity to create "fire-safe" cigarettes. These cigarettes have a reduced idle burning speed which allows them to self-extinguish. This fire-safe paper is manufactured by mechanically altering the setting of the paper slurry.

New York was the first U.S. state to mandate that all cigarettes manufactured or sold within the state comply with a fire safe standard. Canada has passed a similar nation-wide mandate based on the same standard. All U.S. states are gradually passing fire-safe mandates.

European Union wishes to ban in 2011 cigarettes that are not fire-safe. According to a study made by European Union in 16 European countries, 11,000 fires were due to people carelessly handling cigarettes between 2005 and 2007. This caused 520 deaths and 1600 people injured.

Tobacco blend

The process of blending gives the end product a consistent taste from batches of tobacco grown in different areas of a country that may change in flavor profile from year to year due to different environmental conditions.

Modern cigarettes produced after the 1950s, although composed mainly of shredded tobacco leaf, use a significant quantity of tobacco processing by-products in the blend. Each cigarette's tobacco blend is made mainly from the leaves of flue-cured brightleaf, burley tobacco, and oriental tobacco. These leaves are selected, processed, and aged prior to blending and filling. The processing of brightleaf and burley tobaccos for tobacco leaf "strips" produces several by-products such as leaf stems, tobacco dust, and tobacco leaf pieces ("small laminate"). To improve the economics of producing cigarettes, these by-products are processed separately into forms where they can then be possibly added back into the cigarette blend without an apparent or marked change in the cigarette's quality. The most common tobacco by-products include:

Blended leaf (BL) sheet: a thin, dry sheet cast from a paste made with tobacco dust collected from tobacco stemming, finely milled burley-leaf stem, and pectin. Reconstituted leaf (RL) sheet: a paper-like material made from recycled tobacco fines, tobacco stems and "class tobacco", which consists of tobacco particles less than 30 mesh in size (~0.599 mm) that are collected at any stage of tobacco processing. RL is made by extracting the soluble chemicals in the tobacco by-products, processing the leftover tobacco fibers from the extraction into a paper, and then reapplying the extracted materials in concentrated form onto the paper in a fashion similar to what is done in paper sizing. At this stage ammonium additives are applied to make reconstituted tobacco an effective nicotine delivery system. Expanded (ES) or improved stems (IS): ES are rolled, flattened, and shredded leaf stems that are expanded by being soaked in water and rapidly heated. Improved stems follow the same process but are simply steamed after shredding. Both products are then dried. These two products look similar in appearance but are different in taste.

According to a decision on a lawsuit brought by the USA against Philip Morris, and Philip Morris own documents, the only difference between regular cigarettes and a "light" cigarette is tiny holes placed on the paper that increase the air flow. This increase in air flow increases the mutability of the smoke, i.e. making so-called "light" cigarettes even more likely to cause cancer and tumors than regular cigarettes. Philip Morris has been banned from using the term "light" in the USA.

A recipe-specified combination of brightleaf, burley-leaf and oriental-leaf tobacco will be mixed with humectants such as propylene glycol or glycerol, as well as flavouring products and enhancers such as cocoa solids, licorice, tobacco extracts, and various sugars, which are known collectively as "casings". The leaf tobacco will then be shredded, along with a specified amount of small laminate, expanded tobacco, BL, RL, ES and IS. A perfume-like flavour/fragrance, called the "topping" or "toppings", which is most often formulated by flavor companies, will then be blended into the tobacco mixture to improve the consistency in flavour and taste of the cigarettes associated with a certain brand name. As well, they replace lost flavours due to the repeated wetting and drying used in processing the tobacco. Finally the tobacco mixture will be filled into cigarettes tubes and packaged.

In recent years, the manufacturers' pursuit of maximum profits has led to the practice of using not just the leaves, but also recycled tobacco offal and the plant stem. The stem is first crushed and cut to resemble the leaf before being merged or blended into the cut leaf. According to data from the World Health Organization, the amount of tobacco per 1000 cigarettes fell from 2.28 pounds in 1960 to 0.91 pounds in 1999, largely as a result of reconstituting tobacco, fluffing and additives.

Additives

A list of 599 cigarette additives, created by five major American cigarette companies, were approved by the Dept. of Health and Human Services in April 1994. None of these additives are listed as ingredients on the cigarette pack(s). Chemicals are added for organoleptic purposes and many boost the addictive properties of cigarettes, especially when burned.

One of the chemicals on the list, called ammonia, helps convert bound nicotine molecules in tobacco smoke into free nicotine molecules. This process is known as freebasing which enhances the effect of the nicotine on the smoker.

Taxation

Cigarettes are a significant source of tax revenue in many localities. This fact has historically been an impediment for health groups seeking to discourage cigarette smoking, since governments seek to maximize tax revenues. Furthermore, some countries have made cigarettes a state monopoly, which has the same effect on the attitude of government officials outside the health field. In the United States, cigarettes are taxed substantially, but the states are a primary determinant of the total tax rate. Generally, states that rely on tobacco as a significant farm product tend to tax cigarettes at a low rate. It has been shown that higher prices for cigarettes discourage smoking. Every 10 percent increase in the price of cigarettes reduced youth smoking by about seven percent and overall cigarette consumption by about four percent. Thus increased cigarette taxes are proposed as a means to reduce smoking. Coupled with the federal cigarette tax of $1.01 per pack, total cigarette-specific taxes range from $1.18 per pack in Missouri to $10.00 per pack in New York City. States also charge sizable settlement payments to tobacco companies, and the federal government levies user fees to fund FDA regulatory measures over tobacco. While these charges are not cigarette-specific, tobacco companies are ultimately forced to pass on those costs to their consumers. Lastly, most jurisdictions apply sales tax to the full retail price of cigarettes.

In the UK, many people now illegally import cigarettes, or buy those illegally imported, due to the increasing tax. A packet is less than half the price in some other countries, making illegal importers a large profit, while still providing comparatively very cheap cigarettes. The average price for 20 legal cigarettes is between £5.00 and £6.00, while imported packs are sold for less than £3; this is due to the fact that the large majority of the sale price of a legitimate pack is tax.

Sales

Cigarette advertising

Before the Second World War many manufacturers gave away collectible cards, one in each packet of cigarettes. This practice was discontinued to save paper during the war and was never generally reintroduced, though for a number of years Natural American Spirit cigarettes included "vignette" cards depicting endangered animals and American historical events; this series was discontinued in 2003. On April 1, 1970 President Richard Nixon signed the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act into law, banning cigarette advertisements on television in the United States starting on January 2, 1971. However, some tobacco companies attempted to circumvent the ban by marketing new brands of cigarettes as "little cigars"; examples included Tijuana Smalls, which came out almost immediately after the ban took effect, and Backwoods Smokes, which reached the market in the winter of 1973–1974 and whose ads used the slogan, "How can anything that looks so wild taste so mild."

In many parts of the world tobacco advertising and even sponsorship of sporting events has been outlawed. The ban on tobacco advertising and sponsorship in the EU in 2005 has prompted Formula One Management to look for races in areas that allow the tobacco sponsored teams to display their livery. As of 2007, only the Scuderia Ferrari retains tobacco sponsorship, continuing their relationship with Marlboro until 2011. In the United States, bolder advertising restrictions took effect on June 22, 2010.

In some jurisdictions, such as the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Alberta, the retail store display of cigarettes is completely prohibited if persons under the legal age of consumption have access to the premises. In Ontario, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec, Canada, the display of tobacco is prohibited for everyone, regardless of age, as of 2010. This includes non-cigarette products such as cigars and blunt wraps.

Purchase restrictions

Beginning on April 1, 1998, the sale of cigarettes and other tobacco products to people under the state purchase age has been prohibited by law in all 50 states of the United States. The age is 19 in Alabama, Alaska, New Jersey, Utah, and Nassau, Suffolk, and Onondaga counties in New York. The intended effect of this is to prevent older high school students from purchasing cigarettes for their younger peers. Legislation was pending as of 2004 in some other states. In Massachusetts, parents and guardians are allowed to give cigarettes to minors, but sales to minors are prohibited.

Similar laws exist in many other countries. In Canada, most of the provinces require smokers to be 19 years of age to purchase cigarettes (except for Quebec and the prairie provinces, where the age is 18). However, the minimum age only concerns the purchase of tobacco, not use. Alberta, however, does have a law which prohibits the possession or use of tobacco products by all persons under 18, punishable by a $100 fine. Australia, New Zealand, Poland and Pakistan have a nationwide ban on the selling of all tobacco products to people under the age of 18.

Since 1 October 2007, it has been illegal for retailers to sell tobacco in all forms to people under the age of 18 in three of the UK's four constituent countries (England, Wales and Scotland) (rising from 16). It is also illegal to sell lighters, rolling papers and all other tobacco-associated items to people under 18. It is not illegal for people under 18 to buy or smoke tobacco, just as it was not previously for people under 16; it is only illegal for the said retailer to sell the item. The age increase from 16 to 18 came into force in Northern Ireland on 1 September 2008. In the Republic of Ireland, bans on the sale of the smaller ten-packs and confectionery that resembles tobacco products (Candy cigarettes) came into force on May 31, 2007 in a bid to cut underaged smoking. The UK Department of Health plans to follow suit with the ten-pack ban.

Most countries in the world have a legal vending age of 18. Some exceptions are Italy, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Portugal, the Netherlands and Gibraltar, where the age is 16. Since January 1, 2007, all cigarette machines in public places in Germany must attempt to verify a customer's age by requiring the insertion of a debit card. Turkey, which has one of the highest percentage of smokers in its population, has a legal age of 18. Another curiosity is Japan, one of the highest tobacco-consuming nations, which requires purchasers to be 20 years of age (suffrage in Japan is 20 years old). Since July 2008, Japan has enforced this age limit at cigarette vending machines through use of the taspo smart card. In other countries, such as Egypt, it is legal to use and purchase tobacco products regardless of age. Germany raised the purchase age from 16 to 18 on the 1 September 2007.

Some police departments in the United States occasionally send an underaged teenager into a store where cigarettes are sold, and have the teen attempt to purchase cigarettes, with their own or no ID. If the vendor then completes the sale, the store is issued a fine. Similar enforcement practices are regularly performed by Trading Standards Officers in the UK and the Gardaí Siochana, the police force of the Republic of Ireland.

Consumption

As of 2002, approximately 5.5 trillion cigarettes are produced globally each year and are smoked by over 1.1 billion people or greater than one-sixth of the world population. While smoking rates have leveled off or declined in developed nations, they continue to rise in developing parts of the world. Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006 falling from 42% to 20.8% of adults. In the developing world, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year.

+ Smoking prevalence by gender (2000)
		colspan="2">Percent smoking
! Region	! Men	! Women
Africa	29%	4%
United States	35%
Eastern Mediterranean	35%
Europe	46%
Southeast Asia	44%
Western Pacific	60%

Source: World Health Organization estimates, 2000

270 126 146 200

+ Leading consumers of cigarettes (1998)			Country !! Population(millions) !! Cigarettes consumed(billions) !! Cigarettes consumed(per capita)
China	1248	1643
USA	|	451	1670
Japan	|	328	2600
Russia	|	258	1760
Indonesia	|	215	1070

+ Smoking prevalence in the U.S. (2006)
! Rank	! State	! %	! Rank	! State	! %	! Rank	! State	! %	! Rank	! State	! %
1	KY	28.6	14	SC	22.3	27	KS	20.0	40	AZ	18.1
2	WV	25.7	15	NV	22.2	28	GA	20.0	41	VT	18.0
3	OK	25.7	16	NC	22.1	29	ND	19.6	42	DC	17.9
4	MS	25.1	17	DE	21.7	30	VA	19.3	43	CO	17.9
5	AK	24.2	18	WY	21.6	31	RI	19.3	44	MA	17.8
6	IN	24.1	19	PA	21.5	32	MT	19.0	45	MD	17.8
7	AR	23.7	20	IA	21.5	33	NH	18.7	46	HI	17.5
8	LA	23.4	21	FL	21.0	34	NE	18.6	47	WA	17.1
9	MO	23.3	22	ME	20.9	35	OR	18.5	48	CT	17.0
10	AL	23.3	23	WI	20.8	36	NY	18.3	49	ID	16.8
11	TN	22.6	24	IL	20.5	37	MN	18.3	50	CA	14.9
12	OH	22.5	25	SD	20.4	38	TX	18.1	51	UT	9.8
13	MI	22.4	26	NM	20.2	39	NJ	18.1

Health issues

Nicotine, the primary psychoactive chemical in cigarettes, is addictive. Cigarette use by pregnant women has also been shown to cause birth defects (which include mental and physical disability). On average, each cigarette smoked shortens lifespan by 11 minutes and half of smokers die early of tobacco-related disease and lose, on average, 14 years of life. Some of the mineral apatite in Florida used to produce phosphate for U.S.A. tobacco crops contains uranium, radium, lead 210 and polonium 210 and radon. The radioactive smoke from tobacco fertilized this way is deposited in lungs and releases radiation even if a smoker quits the habit. The combination of carcinogenic tar and radiation in a sensitive organ such as lungs increases the risk of cancer. If the smoker also breathes in the asbestos fibers which commonly occur in urban and industrial environments, the risk of cancer is greatly increased.

Warning messages in packages

Some countries require cigarette packs to contain warnings about health. The United States was the first, later followed by other countries including Canada, most of Europe, Australia, India, Hong Kong and Singapore. In December 2000, Canada became the first country to enforce graphic warning on cigarette packaging. And at end of December 2010 the new regulation from Ottawa is to increase size of tobacco warning to cover 3/4 of cigarette package. As of November 2010, 39 countries have adopted similar legislation.

On February 2011, Canadian government made a regulation that enforced cigarettes packages to contain 12 new images to cover 75 percent of the outside panel of cigarette packages and 8 new health messages in the inside panel with full color. Canada is the only country in the world that uses both sides of the panel.

April 2011: The world's toughest laws on packages came from Australia. New Zealand, Canada and United Kingdom have considered similar policy. All of the packages should be on a bland olive green covered 75 percent of the front of a pack and all of the back with graphic health warnings. The only things that differentiate one brand and another just the brand and product name in a standard color, standard position and standard font size and style. Concerning the regulation Philip Morris International is threatening to sue the Australian government, if the regulation still be applied due to Australia should protect foreign investors from discriminatory treatment. Australia is the first country to introduce plain, brand-free packaging for cigarettes.

Smoking bans

Many governments impose restrictions on smoking tobacco, especially in public areas. The primary justification has been the negative health effects of secondhand smoke. Laws vary by country and locality. See:

Smoking age

Smoking bans

Smoking bans by country

Smoking bans in private vehicles

Cigarette butt

The common name for the remains of a cigarette after smoking is a "(cigarette) butt". The butt typically comprises about 30% of the cigarette's original length. It consists of a tissue tube which holds a filter and some remains of tobacco mixed with ash.

Cigarette litter

Cigarette filters are made from cellulose acetate and are biodegradable, though depending on environmental conditions they can be resistant to degradation. Accordingly, the duration of the degradation process is cited as taking as little as 1 month to 3 years to as long as 10–15 years. One campaign group has suggested they're never fully biodegraded.

This variance in rate and resistance to biodegradation in many conditions is a factor in littering and environmental damage. It is estimated that 4.5 trillion cigarette butts become litter every year. In the 2006 International Coastal Cleanup, cigarettes and cigarette butts constituted 24.7% of the total collected pieces of garbage, over twice as many as any other category.

Cigarette butts contain the chemicals filtered from cigarettes and can leach into waterways and water supplies. The results of one study indicate that the chemicals released into freshwater environments from cigarette butts are lethal to daphnia at concentrations of 0.125 cigarette butts per liter (or one cigarette butt per 8 liter).

Cellulose acetate and carbon particles breathed in from cigarette filters is suspected of causing lung damage.

Smouldering cigarette butts have also been blamed for triggering fires from residential fires to major wildfires and bushfires which have caused major property damage and also death as well as disruption to services by triggering alarms and warning systems.

Many governments have sanctioned stiff penalties for littering of cigarette butts; Washington State imposes a penalty of $1024.

Cigarette butts are one of the most commonly found litters on the street. Most high-rise littering also relates to cigarette butts.

Electronic cigarettes

Electronic cigarettes are nicotine delivery devices that closely resemble cigarettes but produce no smoke. The health effects of electronic cigarettes have been, and continue to be, heavily studied. These devices are illegal in some countries, such as Singapore. In other countries, these devices require government approval before these products can be sold, such as Canada and Denmark.

Notable cigarette brands

520

555

Ashford

Army Club

Basic

Black Devils

Ruby

Smart

Bastos

Benson & Hedges

Camel

Capri

Chesterfield

Davidoff

Dunhill

Djarum

Doral

du Maurier

Eclipse

Eve

Export A

Fatima

Fortuna

Gauloises

Gold Flake

Kent

Kool

Lambert and Butler

L&M;

Lark

Lucky Strike

Marlboro

Mayfair

Max

Merit

More

Nat Sherman

Natural American Spirit

Newport

Next

Old Gold

Pall Mall

Parliament

Peter Stuyvesant

Player's

Route 66

Salem

Samson

Seneca

Sobranie

Tareyton

Vantage

Viceroy

Virginia Slims

Winston

Winfield

See also

;Health and culture

Smoking culture

Tobacco smoking

List of additives in cigarettes

Health effects of tobacco smoking

;United States

Cigarette taxes in the United States

History of commercial tobacco in the United States

;Similar products

Beedi

Cigar

Kretek

Cigarillo

Shag (tobacco)

Herbal cigarette

Electronic cigarette

;Cigarette components

Nicotine

Smoke constituents

Cigarette filter

Cigarette holder

Mayfair

References

Further reading

External links

US Center for Disease Control - Smoking and Health Database

GLOBALink

International Non-Governmental Coalition Against Tobacco

National Clearinghouse on Tobacco and Health - Canada

Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco

Bibliography on History of Cigarette Smoking

Cigarette (French)

Category:American inventions Category:French loanwords

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Coordinates	28°36′36″N77°13′48″N
Name	Otis Redding
Background	solo_singer
Birth name	Otis Ray Redding, Jr.
Born	September 09, 1941 Dawson, Georgia, U.S.
Died	December 10, 1967 Madison, Wisconsin, U.S.
Instrument	Vocals, drums, guitar, piano
Genre	Soul, Southern soul, soul blues
Occupation	Singer-songwriter
Years active	1960–1967
Label	Stax, Volt, Atco, Rhino, Sundazed
Associated acts	The Upsetters, The Bar-Kays, Carla Thomas
Website	}}

Otis Ray Redding, Jr. (September 9, 1941 – December 10, 1967) was an American soul singer-songwriter. He is considered one of the major figures in soul/R&B;; his open-throated singing was an influence on other soul singers of the 1960s, while – usually with his writing partner Steve Cropper – he crafted a lean and powerful style of rhythm and blues that formed the basis of the Stax Sound. After appearing at the 1967 Monterey Pop Festival, he wrote and recorded "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay", which went on to become a number one record on both the pop and R&B; charts after his death in a plane crash.

Redding was born and raised in the American state of Georgia. At age 15 he left school to help his family financially, working with Little Richards's backing band the Upsetters, and playing talent shows for the prize money. In 1958 he joined Johnny Jenkins's band, the Pinetoppers, and toured the Southern United States, with Redding serving as the driver. An unscheduled gig led to a turning point in his career. He signed a contract with record label Stax Records and released his debut album Pain in My Heart in 1964. This album produced his first single on Stax, "These Arms of Mine".

Although he was more popular among blacks early in his career, he later became equally popular among whites. Initially, he performed small gigs in the South, but that changed when his group performed at the nightclub Whisky a Go Go, their first concert in the Western United States. Internationally, Redding scheduled concerts in Paris and London among other venues. Redding's death was devastating for Stax, which was verging on bankruptcy. Later they discovered that Atlantic owned the rights to the entire catalog. Redding won numerous awards posthumously, including the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award and induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. His legacy remains solid; he received the honorific nickname "King of Soul", a title also given to American musicians James Brown and Sam Cooke.

Early life

Redding was born in the small town of Dawson, Georgia to gospel singer Otis Redding, Sr., and housekeeper Fannie Redding. His father had worked as a sharecropper and then at Robins Air Force Base. He sometimes worked weekends as a part-time preacher. When Redding was three, the family moved to nearby Macon into the Tindall Heights Housing Project, a public housing project for blacks. For a short time they lived in a small house in Bellevue, but when it burned down they moved back to Tindall. At an early age he sang in Vineville Baptist Church choir and learned guitar and piano. Later at Ballard-Hudson High School, he sang in a school band after having taken drum and singing lessons from the age of 10. Every Sunday he earned US$6 by playing songs for Macon radio station WIBB. He loved singing; and later cited Little Richard and Sam Cooke as major influences. Redding later said, "If it hadn't been for Little Richard, I would not be here. I entered the music business because of Richard – he is my inspiration. I used to sing like Little Richard, his Rock 'n' Roll stuff, you know. Richard has soul, too. My present music has a lot of him in it." Another inspiration was the pianist Gladdy Williams, a well-known musician in Macon. She often performed at Hillview Springs Social Club, and Redding sometimes played there on piano. On Sunday she hosted talent shows. Redding often accompanied his friends from the neighborhood, such as Little Willie Jones and Eddie Ross, the latter on bass guitar.

At 15 he abandoned school to help his family financially. His father had tuberculosis and was often in hospital, leaving his mother as the bread-winner. Redding worked as a well digger, gas station attendant and guest musician, until being eventually hired by Little Richard's band The Upsetters to compete on disc jockey Hamp Swain's "The Teenage Party", a music contest at the Douglass Theatre. Redding, often playing Elvis Presley covers, earned a good wage at about US$25 per gig. Biographer Bob Gulla later criticized Redding's singing ability and his poor sense of rhythm. There, guitarist Johnny Jenkins saw his performance and offered help. Jenkins later worked as lead guitarist and played with Redding on several gigs. Shortly afterwards, he was invited to replace Willie Jones, frontman of Pat Teacake's Band, which also featured Jenkins. At the age of 19 Redding met Zelma Atwood at "The Teenage Party". She gave birth to Dexter and married Redding in August 1961. In mid-1960 he moved to Los Angeles with his sister Deborah Redding, and wrote his first songs, including "She's Allright", "Tuff Enuff", "I'm Gettin' Hip" and "Gamma Lamma", the first later released as a single.

Career

Early career

As a member of Teacake's Band, Redding toured in the Southern United States, especially on the Chitlin' circuit. These performance venues were safe for African-American musicians during the age of racial segregation which lasted into the early 1960s. Jenkins later left Teacake to become the featured artist with the "Pinetoppers". Around this time, Redding met Phil Walden, the future founder of the recording company Phil Walden and Associates, and later Bobby Smith, who ran a small record label, Confederate Records. He signed with Confederate and recorded his second single, "Shout Bamalama" (a rewrite of "Gamma Lamma"), which he performed with his band "Otis and the Shooters". Wayne Cochran, the only solo artist signed to Confederate, became the Pinetoppers' bass guitarist.

Next, Redding wrote the song, "These Arms of Mine", his first single for Stax. This ballad sold more than 800,000 copies. At the same time, Walden started to look for a record label. Atlantic Records representative Joe Galkin was interested in working with Jenkins and proposed to send him to a Stax studio in Memphis. On the way to a gig, Redding drove for Jenkins, as the latter did not possess a driver's license. Jenkins performed with Booker T. & the M.G.'s. When that set ended early, Redding had the opportunity to perform. The first song was "Hey Hey Baby", but studio chief Jim Stewart thought it sounded too much like Little Richard. The next song was "These Arms of Mine", which featured Jenkins on guitar and Steve Cropper on piano. Stewart later praised Redding's performance of the latter song and noted, "Everybody was fixin' to go home, but Joe Galkin insisted we give Otis a listen. There was something different about [the ballad]. He really poured his soul into it."

Redding's debut album Pain in My Heart was released on January 1, 1964 by Stax on the Volt sister label. Some songs, such as "These Arms of Mine" and "Security", later charted successfully as singles. The title track sparked some copyright issues, as it sounded like Irma Thomas' "Ruler of My Heart". Despite this, the album peaked at number 20 on the Billboard R&B; chart and at number 85 on the Billboard Hot 100. As the majority of the songs released after "Security" were more adagio, several DJs labelled Otis Redding, "Mr. Pitiful". Subsequently Cropper and Redding wrote a song with that name and included it on Redding's second studio album, The Great Otis Redding Sings Soul Ballads, released in March 1965.

In 1965 Redding co-wrote the soul song "I've Been Loving You Too Long" together with friend Jerry Butler, lead singer of The Impressions, in a hotel near the Atlanta airport. In the summer of 1965, Redding and the studio crew arranged new songs for Redding's next album. Over July 9–10 all songs except "I've Been Loving You" were written in exactly 24 hours in Memphis. This is due to cutbacks of gigs, in which the house band, Booker T. and the MG's and the Memphis Horns, would later perform. Two of the eleven songs, "Ole Man Trouble" and "Respect", had been finished earlier. "Respect" and "I've Been Loving You" were later recut in stereo during the Otis Blue-session, with the remarkable change that on the first song the line "hey hey hey" was sung by Earl Sims and not by Redding, while the latter song was completely rewritten. The album, entitled Otis Blue: Otis Redding Sings Soul, was finally released in September 1965, one of the first albums released by Volt.

Whisky a Go Go and "Try a Little Tenderness"

Redding's success let him buy a ranch in Georgia, calling it the "Big O Ranch" (which was extended to after his death). Stax was also doing well; Walden signed more and more musicians, including Percy Sledge, Johnnie Taylor, Clarence Carter and Eddie Floyd, and together with Redding they founded the production companies "Jotis Records" (derived from Joe Galkin and Otis) and Redwal Music (derived from Redding and Walden). Their audience had been mostly black, but The Beatles were fans of the Stax/Volt recordings, encouraging Redding to perform for a big white audience. They chose Whisky a Go Go on the Sunset Strip in Los Angeles. Redding would be one of the first soul artists to perform in the western United States. His performance received critical acclaim, including positive press in Los Angeles Times, and pushed Redding further into the mainstream. Bob Dylan attended and offered him an altered version of Dylan's song "Just Like A Woman", but Redding did not record it. It was the biggest mistake of his career, according to a private press release issued on September 8, 2011 for a special exhibit at the Stax Museum.

In late 1966 Redding returned to the Stax studio to record. One track was "Try a Little Tenderness", written by Jimmy Campbell, Reg Connelly and Harry M. Woods in 1932. Today this is often considered to be Redding's signature song. Jim Stewart said, "If there's one song, one performance that really sort of sums up Otis and what he's about, it's 'Try a Little Tenderness'. That one performance is so special and so unique that it expresses who he is... If you want to wrap it up, just listen to [it]". On this version Redding was backed by Booker T. & the MG's. Staff producer Isaac Hayes worked on the arrangement. "Try a Little Tenderness" was included on his next album, Complete & Unbelievable: The Otis Redding Dictionary of Soul. Although the song was commercially successful – it peaked at number 25 on Billboard's Hot 100 chart and at number 4 on R&B; singles chart – the album did not. In search of a wider audience, Walden and his crew organized a tour to London, where R&B; was popular thanks to artists like the Rolling Stones and the Beatles, who had covered various R&B; songs. In the winter of 1966, booking agent Bill Graham proposed that Redding play at the Fillmore Theatre. The performance was commercially and critically successful, prompting Graham to remark afterwards, "That was the biggest gig I ever put on in my entire life."

A year after the Fillmore, Redding released another studio album, King & Queen, this time with Carla Thomas. He returned to Europe to perform at the Olympia Theatre in Paris. A live album entitled Otis Redding: Live in Europe was released three months later featuring this performance. Other live performances were in London and Stockholm, featured in the albums Live in London and Paris and in the bootleg Live in Concerthouse – Stockholm. Redding was criticized for his arrogant and contrived performances in the last concerts. His controversial decision to take Alexander Conley on the tour instead of artists such as Rufus Thomas and William Bell was also criticized. Al Bell was active in the Stax reorganization. He undertook routine business and managed tours for Redding among others, the latter formerly done by Estelle Baxton, sister of Jim Stewart. He was later hired as the new A&R; head, replacing Steve Cropper, as the crew thought he would be more successful.

Live at Monterey

In 1967 Redding performed at the famous Monterey Pop Festival in Monterey, California. This was the first widely promoted and heavily attended rock festival, which attracted an estimated 55,000 attendees with up to 90,000 people at the event's peak at midnight on Sunday. The festival, which became one of the major festivals in Monterey alongside the Monterey Jazz Festival and the Monterey Folk Festival, was founded by John Phillips from The Mamas & the Papas and promoter Lou Adler. It ran from June 16–18, and mostly included musical acts from the "Hippie" movement, such as The Who, Jefferson Airplane and The Jimi Hendrix Experience. This was the first major concert for several of the participating bands.

Redding performed on the second day, alongside Booker T. & the M.G.s, but arranged the song list only 10 minutes before his performance. At the end of their song "Green Onions", Tom Smothers introduced the last act. Redding and his backing band The Bar-Kays opened with Cooke's "Shake" and then played "Respect" (written by Redding). Then Redding delivered an impulsive speech in which he asked the audience if they were the "love crowd", looking for a big response. The ballad "I've Been Loving You" followed. The two last songs were "Satisfaction" and "Try a Little Tenderness". The band blew the ending, but Redding returned and completed the song with an additional chorus. With a last "I got to go, y'all, I don't wanna go", Redding left the stage. This would be his last major concert. After Monterey, Redding wanted to record with his close friend Arthur Conley, but Stax was against the idea. The two moved from Memphis to Macon to continue writing. The result was the chart-topping "Sweet Soul Music", a song based on Sam Cooke's "Yeah Man". It peaked at number two on Billboard Hot 100.

"(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay" and death

Redding developed polyps on his larynx, which he tried to treat with tea and lemon or honey. He was hospitalized in September, 1967 to undergo surgery. In the winter of 1967, he again came to Stax to record. One new song was "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay", written by Cropper and Redding. Redding was inspired by the Beatles album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. He wanted to attain a similar sound, against the label's wishes. Redding's wife was unhappy that it did not sound like a typical Redding song. Redding wanted to change his musical style to avoid boring his audience. The Stax crew were similarly dissatisfied; Jim Stewart thought that it was not R&B;, while bassist Duck Dunn thought its sound would damage Stax. However, Redding thought it was the best song he ever wrote and would top the charts. Redding whistled at the end, either intending to add lyrics later, forgetting Cropper's ending rap, or it was meant to be an intentional interpretation. Redding died just three days later.

The group had begun to fly on Redding's Beechcraft H18 to gigs. They flew to Nashville, and on December 9, 1967 appeared on the nationally–syndicated Upbeat television show produced in Cleveland. They played three concerts in two nights at a small club called Leo's Casino. On the next day they played at the "Factory" nightclub near the University of Wisconsin after opening act "The Grim Reapers", precursor of Cheap Trick.

After a last phone call with his wife and children, Redding's next stop was in Madison, Wisconsin. The weather was poor, with heavy rain and fog, and he had been warned to postpone the flight. Four miles from their destination at Truax Field, Fraser radioed for permission to land. Shortly thereafter, the plane crashed into Lake Monona. Ben Cauley, one of the Bar-Kays and the accident's only survivor, was sleeping shortly before the accident. He woke just before impact, and saw his bandmate Phalon Jones look out a window and exclaim, "Oh, no!" Cauley said the last thing he remembered before the crash was unbuckling his seat belt. He then found himself in the frigid water, grasping a seat cushion to keep afloat. The cause of the crash was never precisely determined. The only other Bar-Kays to survive were James Alexander and Carl Sims, demoted to a commercial flight for lack of room on the H18.

Redding's body was recovered the next day when the lakebed was searched. The funeral service took place at the City Auditorium in Macon, attended by many prominent musicians. More than 4,500 people came to the obsequy, overflowing the 3,000 seat auditorium, although many did not know who Redding actually was. Johnny Jenkins did not come, fearing his reaction would be worse than Zelma Redding's. Redding was entombed on his ranch in Round Oak, north of Macon. Jerry Wexler delivered the eulogy.

In 2007, a memorial plaque was placed on the lakeside deck of the Madison convention center, Monona Terrace. "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay" was released in January 1968 and became Redding's only number-one single on the Billboard Hot 100, and the first posthumous number-one single in U.S. chart history. It sold about 4 million copies worldwide and had received more than 8 million airplays as of 2003. The album The Dock of the Bay was the first posthumous album to reach the top spot on the UK Albums Chart.

Posthumous releases

Shortly after Redding's death, Atlantic Records, distributor of the Stax/Volt releases, was purchased by Warner Bros. Stax was required to renegotiate its distribution deal, and found that Atlantic actually owned the entire Stax/Volt catalog. Stax was unable to regain the rights to its recordings, and severed its relationship with Atlantic.

Atlantic also held the rights to all unreleased Otis Redding masters. It had enough material for three new studio albums – The Immortal Otis Redding (1968), Love Man (1969), and Tell the Truth (1970) – all issued on its Atco Records. A number of successful singles emerged from these LPs, among them "Amen" (1968), "Hard to Handle" (1968), "I've Got Dreams to Remember" (1968), "Love Man" (1969), and "Look at That Girl" (1969). Singles were also lifted from two live Atlantic-issued Redding albums, In Person at the Whisky a Go Go, recorded in 1966 and issued in 1968 on Atco, and Monterey International Pop Festival, a Reprise Records release featuring some of the live Monterey Pop Festival performances of The Jimi Hendrix Experience on side one and all of Redding's Monterey performances on side two.

In September 2007, the first official DVD anthology of Redding's live performances was released by Concord Music Group, the current owners of the Stax catalog. Dreams To Remember: The Legacy of Otis Redding, featured 16 full-length performances and 40 minutes of new interviews documenting Redding's life and career. On May 18, 2010, Stax Records released a three-disc recording of three complete sets that he played at the Whisky a Go Go in April 1966.

Legacy

Otis Redding remains one of the most recognized artists in soul music. His lean and powerful style exemplified the Stax Sound, and gave Stax a new identity; he was sometimes said to be its "heart and soul". His tremolo, and honesty were particular hallmarks, along with the use of interjections, for example "gotta, gotta, gotta", some of which came from Sam Cooke. Producer Jim Stewart thought the "begging singing" was stress-induced and also caused by Redding's extreme, early shyness. Early on he copied the singing style of Little Richard, one of his idols, but gradually developed his own style. Primarily he was influenced by soul musicians such as Little Richard and Sam Cooke, whose live album Live at the Copa was a strong influence, but later explored different genres that were popular during his time. He studied the contemporary music of The Beatles, Bob Dylan, and later also rock music by artists such as Eric Clapton and Jimi Hendrix, as can be heard in songs like "Hard to Handle", which was more rock and roll than R&B.;

Another characteristic was his ability to convey strong emotion. Richie Unterberger of Allmusic noted his "hoarse, gritty vocals, brassy arrangements, an emotional way with both party tunes and aching ballads." In the book Rock and Roll: An Introduction, authors Michael Campbell and James Brody suggested that "Redding's singing calls to mind a fervent black preacher. Especially in up-tempo numbers, his singing is more than impassioned speech but less than singing with precise pitch." According to the book, "Redding finds a rough midpoint between impassioned oratory and conventional singing. His delivery overflows with emotion" in his song "I Can't Turn You Loose". Booker T. Jones, an American musician, has described Otis' singing as energetic and emotional, but said that his vocal range was limited, including neither low nor high notes.

Although he mostly covered songs, he also wrote or at least co-wrote a few, such as "Respect", "(Sittin' on) The Dock of the Bay" or "Security". Most of lyrics of songs he wrote were about love, though. However, in "(Sittin' on) The Dock of the Bay" he abandoned the romantic themes and replaced it with "sad, wistful introspections, amplified by unforgettable descending guitar riffs by Cropper". On the official website of the Songwriter's Hall of Fame, it was suggested that the song "was a kind of brooding, dark voicing of despair, ("I've got nothin' to live for/Look like nothin' gonna come my way," as "his music, in general, was exultant and joyful". According to the journalist Ruth Rob, author of the liner notes for the 1993 box-set by Rhino Records, "It is currently a revisionist theory to equate soul with the darker side of man's musical expression, blues. That fanner of the flame of 'Trouble's got a hold on me' music, might well be the father of the form if it is, the glorified exaltation found in church on any Sunday morning is its mother." And further on the site declares that "glorified exaltation indeed was an apt description of Otis Redding's songwriting and singing style." Booker T. Jones compared Redding with Leonard Bernstein, as he meant "He was the same type person. He was a leader. He'd just lead with his arms and his body and his fingers."

Artists from many genres named Redding as a musical influence, including The Grateful Dead, The Black Crowes, Pearl Jam, Lynyrd Skynyrd, The Doors, Steely Dan, Phish, Everclear; soul/R&B; musicians Al Green, Etta James and William Bell; musicians from the late 20th century John Mayer, Christine Aguilera, Kelly Clarkson; and musical artists from other genres, such as Willie Nelson, Rod Stewart, Michael Bolton, Kanye West (who mixed his songs, which appeared on "Gone" and "Otis", the latter together with Jay-Z), Toots Hibbert of Toots & The Maytals, Bob Dylan, Guy Sebastian, and Janis Joplin and have covered Redding songs.

Awards and honors

The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, where he was inducted in 1989, declared Redding's name to be "synonymous with the term soul, music that arose out of the black experience in America through the transmutation of gospel and rhythm and blues into a form of funky, secular testifying." Readers of the British music newspaper Melody Maker voted him as the top vocalist of 1967, superseding Elvis Presley, who had topped the list for the prior 10 years. In 1993, the U.S. Post Office issued an Otis Redding 29-cent commemorative postage stamp. Redding was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1994, and in 1999 he received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed three Redding recordings ("Shake", "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay", and "Try a Little Tenderness") among its list of "The 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll." American music magazine Rolling Stone ranked Redding at number twenty-one on their list of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time" and number eight on their list of the "100 Greatest Singers of All Time".

Five of his albums, Otis Blue: Otis Redding Sings Soul, Dreams to Remember: The Otis Redding Anthology, The Dock of the Bay, Complete & Unbelievable: The Otis Redding Dictionary of Soul and Live in Europe, were ranked by the aforementioned magazine on their list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time". The first album was singled out for praise by music critics; apart from the Rolling Stone listing at number 74, NME ranked it 35 on their list of the "Greatest Albums of All Time", while Time listed it on their "100 Greatest Albums of All Time" list. In 2002, the city of Macon honored its native son by unveiling a memorial statue in the city's Gateway Park. The park is next to the Otis Redding Memorial Bridge, which crosses the Ocmulgee River. The Rhythm and Blues Foundation named Redding as the recipient of its 2006 Legacy Award. Billboard awarded Redding the "Otis Redding Excellence Award" in the same year. In commemoration of the 40th anniversary of Redding's passing, the Georgia Music Hall of Fame presented from September 14, 2007 through September 10, 2008 the first major exhibition of music, photographs, film and artifacts documenting the singer's life and musical legacy. The exhibition was named "Museum Exhibition of the Year" by the Georgia Association of Museums and Galleries in January 2008.

Discography

;Studio albums

Pain in My Heart (1964)

The Great Otis Redding Sings Soul Ballads (1965)

Otis Blue: Otis Redding Sings Soul (1965)

The Soul Album (1966)

Complete & Unbelievable: The Otis Redding Dictionary of Soul (1966)

King & Queen (1967)

;Posthumous studio albums

The Dock of the Bay (1968)

The Immortal Otis Redding (1968)

Love Man (1969)

Tell the Truth (1970)

References

;Bibliography

External links

Otis Redding Official Website

Category:1941 births Category:1967 deaths Category:African American singer-songwriters Category:American male singers Category:American tenors Category:American soul musicians Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Category:Songwriters Hall of Fame inductees Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the United States Category:Accidental deaths in Wisconsin Category:Atlantic Records artists Category:People from Macon, Georgia Category:People from Terrell County, Georgia Category:Georgia Music Hall of Fame inductees

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