Name	Kraków
Image shield	POL Kraków COA.svg
Pushpin map	Poland
Pushpin label position	bottom
Coordinates region	PL
Subdivision type	Country
Subdivision name
Subdivision type1	Voivodeship
Subdivision name1	Lesser Poland
Subdivision type2	County
Subdivision name2	Kraków County
Leader title	Mayor
Leader name	Jacek Majchrowski
Established title	City rights
Established date	5 June 1257
Area total km2	327
Population as of	2010
Population total	756267
Population metro	1449783 (as of 2006 )
Population density km2	auto
Population demonym	Cracovian
Timezone	CET
Utc offset	+1
Timezone dst	CEST
Utc offset dst	+2
Elevation m	219
Postal code type	Postal code
Postal code	30-024 to 31-962
Area code	+48 12
Website	www.krakow.pl }}

Kraków () ''also'' Krakow, ''or'' Cracow (), is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River () in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life and is one of Poland's most important economic hubs. It was the capital of Poland from 1038 to 1596; the capital of the Grand Duchy of Kraków from 1846 to 1918; and the capital of Kraków Voivodeship from the 14th century to 1999. It is now the capital of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship.

The city has grown from a Stone Age settlement to Poland's second most important city. It began as a hamlet on Wawel Hill and was already being reported as a busy trading centre of Slavonic Europe in 965. With the establishment of new universities and cultural venues at the emergence of the Second Polish Republic and throughout the 20th century, Kraków reaffirmed its role as a major national academic and artistic centre. The city has a population of approximately 760,000 whereas about 8 million people live within a 100 km radius of its main square.

After the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany at the start of World War II, Kraków was turned into the capital of Germany's General Government. The Jewish population of the city was moved into a walled zone known as the Kraków Ghetto, from which they were sent to extermination camps such as Auschwitz and the concentration camp at Płaszów.

In 1978, Karol Wojtyła, archbishop of Kraków, was elevated to the papacy as Pope John Paul II – the first Slavic pope ever, and the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. Also that year, UNESCO approved the first ever sites for its new World Heritage List, including the entire Old Town in inscribing ''Cracow's Historic Centre''.

Etymology

The name of Kraków is traditionally derived from Krakus (Krak, Grakch), the legendary founder of Kraków and a ruler of the tribe of Lechitians (Poles). In Polish, is an archaic possessive form of ''Krak'' and essentially means "Krak's (town)". Krakus's name may derive from "krakula", a Proto-Slavic word meaning a judge's staff, or a Proto-Slavic word "krak" meaning an oak, once a sacred tree most often associated with the concept of genealogy. The first mention of Prince Krakus (then written as ''Grakch'') dates back to 1190, although the town existed as early as the 7th century, inhabited by the tribe of Wiślanie.

The city's full official name, used on ceremonial occasions, is , meaning "Royal Capital City of Kraków". In English, a person born, or living, in is a ().

History

Early history

Kraków's prehistory begins with evidence of a Stone Age settlement on the present site of the Wawel Hill. A legend attributes Kraków's founding to the mythical ruler Krakus, who built it above a cave occupied by a dragon, Smok Wawelski. The first written record of the city's name dates back to 966, when Kraków was described as a notable commercial centre owned by a Bohemian duke. Mieszko took Kraków from Bohemians and incorporated it into the holdings of the Piast dynasty towards the end of his reign.

+ Ethnic structure of Kraków, Kazimierz and Kleparz population in the 14th century
Poles
Germans
Jews
Hungarians and/or Italians
Others
Subtotal (townsfolk)
Court, soldiery & clergy
Grand total (population)

In 1038, Kraków became the seat of the Polish government. By the end of the 10th century, the city was a leading centre of trade. Brick buildings were constructed, including the Royal Wawel Castle with St. Felix and Adaukt Rotunda, Romanesque churches such as St. Adalbert's, a cathedral, and a basilica. The city was almost entirely destroyed during the Mongol invasion of 1241. It was rebuilt in a form practically unaltered, and incorporated in 1257 by the king, with city rights based on the Magdeburg law allowing for tax benefits and new trade privileges for its citizens. In 1259, the city was again ravaged by the Mongols. A third attack followed in 1287, repelled thanks in part to the new built fortifications.

The city rose to prominence in 1364, when Casimir III of Poland founded the University of Kraków, the second oldest university in central Europe after the Charles University in Prague. The city continued to grow under the joint Lithuanian-Polish Jagiellon dynasty. As the capital of the Kingdom of Poland and a member of the Hanseatic League, the city attracted many craftsmen, businesses, and guilds as science and the arts began to flourish.

Golden age

The 15th and 16th centuries were known as Poland's ''Złoty Wiek'' or Golden Age. Many works of Polish Renaissance art and architecture were created then, including ancient synagogues in Kraków's Jewish quarter of Kazimierz, such as the Old Synagogue. During the reign of Casimir IV, various artists came to work and live in Kraków, and Johann Haller established a printing press in the city after Kasper Straube had printed the Calendarium Cracoviense, the first work printed in Poland, in 1473.

In 1520, the most famous church bell in Poland, named ''Zygmunt'' after Sigismund I of Poland, was cast by Hans Behem. At that time, Hans Dürer, a younger brother of Albrecht Dürer, was Sigismund's court painter. Hans von Kulmbach made altarpieces for several churches. In 1572, King Sigismund II, the last of the Jagiellons, died childless. The Polish throne passed to Henry III of France and then to other foreign-based rulers in rapid succession, causing a decline in the city's importance that was worsened by pillaging during the Swedish invasion and by an outbreak of bubonic plague that left 20,000 of the city's residents dead. In 1596, Sigismund III of the Swedish House of Vasa moved the capital of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from Kraków to Warsaw.

18th to early 20th century

Already weakened during the 18th century, by the mid-1790s the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had been twice partitioned by its neighbors: Russia, the Habsburg empire, and Prussia. In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko initiated an unsuccessful insurrection in the town's Main Square which, in spite of his victorious Battle of Racławice against a numerically superior Russian army, resulted in the third and final partition of Poland. Following the Uprising, Kraków became part of the Austrian partition in a province of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. In 1809, Napoleon Bonaparte captured former Polish territories from Austria and made the town part of the Duchy of Warsaw. Following Napoleon's defeat in Russia, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 mostly restored earlier structures, although it also created the partially independent Free City of Kraków. As in 1794, an insurrection in 1846 failed; resulting in the city being annexed by Austria under the name the Grand Duchy of Krakow (). In 1866, Austria granted a degree of autonomy to Galicia after the Austro-Prussian War, and Kraków became a Polish national symbol and a centre of culture and art, known frequently as the "Polish Athens" (Polskie Ateny) or "Polish Mecca". Many leading Polish artists of the period resided in Kraków, among them the seminal painter Jan Matejko, laid to rest at Rakowicki Cemetery, and the founder of modern Polish drama, Stanisław Wyspiański. Fin de siècle Kraków evolved into a modern metropolis; running water and electric streetcars were introduced in 1901, and between 1910 and 1915, Kraków and surrounding suburban communities were gradually combined into a single administrative unit called Greater Kraków (''Wielki Kraków'').

At the outbreak of World War I on 3 August 1914, Józef Piłsudski formed a small cadre military unit, the First Cadre Company—the predecessor of the Polish Legions—which set out from Kraków to fight for the liberation of Poland. The city was briefly besieged by Russian troops in November 1914, but they were pushed back afterwards. The Austrian rule in Kraków ended in 1918 when the Polish Liquidation Committee assumed power.

1918 to the present

With the emergence of the Second Polish Republic, Kraków restored its role as a major academic and cultural centre with the establishment of new universities such as the AGH University of Science and Technology and the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, including a number of new and essential vocational schools. It became an important cultural centre for the Polish Jews with a Zionist youth movement relatively strong among the city's Jewish population. Kraków was also an influential centre of Jewish spiritual life, with all its manifestations of religious observance from Orthodox, to Chasidic and Reform flourishing side by side. Following the invasion of Poland in September 1939, the Nazi German forces turned the city into the capital of the General Government, a colonial authority headed by Hans Frank and seated in Wawel Castle. In an operation called "Sonderaktion Krakau", more than 180 university professors and academics were arrested and sent to Sachsenhausen and Dachau concentration camps, though the survivors were later released on the request of prominent Italians. The Jewish population was first confined to a ghetto and later murdered or sent to concentration camps, including Płaszów and Auschwitz in Oświęcim. Roman Polanski, the film director, is a survivor of the Ghetto, while Oskar Schindler, the German businessman portrayed in the Steven Spielberg film ''Schindler's List'', selected employees from the Ghetto to work in his enamelware plant (''Deutsche Emailwaren Fabrik'', or ''Emalia'' for short), thus saving them from the camps. Kraków remained relatively undamaged at the end of World War II. After the war, under the Stalinist regime, the intellectual and academic community of Kraków was put under total political control. The universities were soon deprived of their printing rights as well as their autonomy. The communist government of the People's Republic of Poland ordered construction of the country's largest steel mill in the newly created suburb of Nowa Huta. The creation of the giant Lenin Steelworks (now Sendzimir Steelworks owned by Mittal) sealed Kraków's transformation from a university city to an industrial centre. The new working class, drawn by the industrialization of the city, contributed to its rapid population growth.

In an effort that spanned two decades, Karol Wojtyła, cardinal archbishop of Kraków, successfully lobbied for permission to build the first churches in the new industrial suburbs. In 1978, Wojtyła was elevated to the papacy as John Paul II, the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. In the same year, UNESCO placed Kraków Old Town on the first ever list of World Heritage Sites.

Geography

Kraków lies in the southern part of Poland, on the Vistula River, in a valley at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains, above sea level; half way between the Jurassic Rock Upland () to the north, and the Tatra Mountains to the south, constituting the natural border with Slovakia and the Czech Republic; 230 km west from the border with Ukraine. There are five nature reserves in Kraków, with a combined area of ca. 48.6 hectares (120 acres). Due to their ecological value, these areas are legally protected. The western part of the city, along its northern and north-western side, borders an area of international significance known as the Jurassic Bielany-Tyniec refuge. The main motives for the protection of this area include plant and animal wildlife and the area's geomorphological features and landscape. Another part of the city is located within the ecological 'corridor' of the Vistula River valley. This corridor is also assessed as being of international significance as part of the Pan-European ecological network. The city center is situated on the left (northern) bank of the river.

Climate

Kraków has an Oceanic climate (Cfb) according to the Köppen climate classification system, one of the easternmost localities in Europe to do so (East of Tarnów, and north of Kielce the January mean dips below and thus becomes continental (Dfb) in nature). The city features a temperate climate. Average temperatures in summer range from to and in winter from to . The average annual temperature is . In summer temperatures often exceed , and sometimes even , while winter drops to at night and about at day; during very cold nights the temperature drops to . In view of the fact that Kraków lies near the Tatra Mountains, there is often blowing halny – a foehn wind, when the temperature rises rapidly, and even in winter reaches to .

Governance

The Kraków City Council has 43 elected members, one of whom is the mayor, or President of Kraków, elected every four years. The election of the City Council and of the local head of government, which takes place at the same time, is based on legislation introduced on 20 June 2002. The current President of Kraków, re-elected for his third term in 2010, is Professor Jacek Majchrowski. Several members of the Polish national Parliament (Sejm) are elected from the Kraków constituency. The city's official symbols include a coat of arms, a flag, a seal, and a banner.

The responsibilities of Kraków’s president include drafting and implementing resolutions, enacting city bylaws, managing the city budget, employing city administrators, and preparing against floods and natural disasters. The president fulfills his duties with the help of the City Council, city managers and city inspectors. In the 1990s, the city government was reorganized to better differentiate between its political agenda and administrative functions. As a result, the Office of Public Information was created to handle inquiries and foster communication between city departments and citizens at large.

In the year 2000, the city government introduced a new long-term program called "Safer City" in cooperation with the Police, Traffic, Social Services, Fire, Public Safety, and the Youth Departments. Subsequently, the number of criminal offences went down by 3 percent between 2000 and 2001, and the rate of detection increased by 1.4 percent to a total of 30.2 percent in the same period. The city is receiving help in carrying out the program from all educational institutions and the local media, including TV, radio and the press.

Districts

Kraków is divided into 18 administrative districts (''dzielnica'') or boroughs, each with a degree of autonomy within its own municipal government. Prior to March 1991, the city had been divided into four quarters which still give a sense of identity to Kraków - the towns of Podgórze, Nowa Huta, and Krowodrza which were absorbed by Kraków as it expanded, and the ancient town center of Kraków itself.

The oldest neighborhoods of Kraków were incorporated into the city before the late 18th century. They include the Old Town (''Stare Miasto''), once contained within the city defensive walls and now encircled by the Planty park; the Wawel District, which is the site of the Royal Castle and the cathedral; Stradom and Kazimierz, the latter originally divided into Christian and Jewish quarters; as well as the ancient town of Kleparz.

Major districts added in the 19th and 20th centuries include Podgórze, which until 1915 was a separate town on the southern bank of the Vistula, and Nowa Huta, east of the city centre, built after World War II.

The current divisions were introduced by the Kraków City Hall on 19 April 1995. Districts were assigned Roman numerals as well as the current name: Stare Miasto (I), Grzegórzki (II), Prądnik Czerwony (III), Prądnik Biały (IV), Krowodrza (V), Bronowice (VI), Zwierzyniec (VII), Dębniki (VIII), Łagiewniki-Borek Fałęcki (IX), Swoszowice (X), Podgórze Duchackie (XI), Bieżanów-Prokocim (XII), Podgórze (XIII), Czyżyny (XIV), Mistrzejowice (XV), Bieńczyce (XVI), Wzgórza Krzesławickie (XVII), and Nowa Huta (XVIII).

Among the most notable historic districts of the city are: Wawel Hill, home to Wawel Castle and Wawel Cathedral, where many Polish kings are buried; the medieval Old Town, with its Main Market Square ( square); dozens of old churches and museums; the 14th-century buildings of the Jagiellonian University; and Kazimierz, the historical center of Kraków's Jewish social and religious life.

The Old Town district of Kraków is home to about six thousand historic sites and more than two million works of art. Its rich variety of historic architecture includes Renaissance, Baroque and Gothic buildings. Kraków's palaces, churches and mansions display great variety of color, architectural details, stained glass, paintings, sculptures, and furnishings.

In the Market Square stands the Gothic St. Mary's Basilica (''Kościół Mariacki''). It was re-built in the 14th century and features the famous wooden altar (''Ołtarz Wita Stwosza''), the largest Gothic altarpiece in the World, carved by Veit Stoss. From the church's main tower a trumpet call (''hejnał mariacki''), is sounded every hour. The melody, which used to announce the opening and closing of city-gates, ends unexpectedly in midstream. According to legend, the tune was played during the 13th-century Tatar invasion by a guard warning citizens against the attack. He was shot by a Tatar archer while playing, the bugle-call breaking off at the moment he died. The story was recounted in a book published in the late 1920s called ''The Trumpeter of Krakow'', which won a Newbery Award.

Demographics

Krakow had a recorded population of 754,854 in 2009. According to the 2006 data, the population of Kraków comprised about 2% of the population of Poland and 23% of the population of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship. Selected demographic indicators are presented in a table (below), compiled on the basis of only the population living in Kraków permanently.

In the 1931 census, 78.1% of Cracovians declared Polish as their primary language, with Yiddish or Hebrew at 20.9%, Ukrainian 0.4%, German 0.3%, and Russian 0.1%. The ravages of history have greatly reduced the percentage of ethnic minorities living in Kraków. The official and unofficial numbers differ, as in the case of Romani people. Hence, according to the 2002 census, among those who have declared their national identity (irrespective of language and religion) in Kraków Voivodeship, 1,572 were Slovaks, followed by Ukrainians (472), Jews (50) and Armenians (22). Romani people, officially numbered at 1,678, are estimated at over 5,000. Statistics collected by the Ministry of Education reveal that, even though only 1% of adults (''as per above'') officially claim minority status, as many as 3% of students participate in programmes designed for ethnic minorities.

Historical demographics of Kraków from 1791

ImageSize = width:800 height:200 PlotArea = left:50 right:20 top:25 bottom:30 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical AlignBars = late Colors = id:linegrey2 value:gray(0.9) id:linegrey value:gray(0.7) id:cobar value:rgb(0.2,0.7,0.8) id:cobar2 value:rgb(0.6,0.9,0.6) DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:0 till:760000 ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:100000 start:0 gridcolor:linegrey ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:25000 start:0 gridcolor:linegrey2 PlotData = color:cobar width:19 align:left bar:1791 from:0 till:23591 bar:1835 from:0 till:36000 bar:1870 from:0 till:49800 bar:1900 from:0 till:85300 bar:1910 from:0 till:137592 bar:1921 from:0 till:184300 bar:1931 from:0 till:219300 bar:1939 from:0 till:259000 bar:1945 from:0 till:298500 bar:1955 from:0 till:428231 bar:1965 from:0 till:520145 bar:1975 from:0 till:684600 bar:1985 from:0 till:740120 bar:1995 from:0 till:744987 bar:2003 color:cobar2 from:0 till:757685 bar:2009 from:0 till:754854 PlotData= textcolor:black fontsize:S bar:1791 at: 23591 text: 23.591 shift:(-14,5) bar:1835 at: 36000 text: 36.000 shift:(-14,5) bar:1870 at: 49800 text: 49.800 shift:(-14,5) bar:1900 at: 85300 text: 85.300 shift:(-14,5) bar:1910 at: 137592 text: 137.592 shift:(-17,5) bar:1921 at: 184300 text: 184.300 shift:(-17,5) bar:1931 at: 219300 text: 219.300 shift:(-17,5) bar:1939 at: 259000 text: 259.000 shift:(-17,5) bar:1945 at: 298500 text: 298.500 shift:(-17,5) bar:1955 at: 428231 text: 428.231 shift:(-17,5) bar:1965 at: 520145 text: 520.145 shift:(-17,5) bar:1975 at: 684600 text: 684.600 shift:(-17,5) bar:1985 at: 740120 text: 740.120 shift:(-23,5) bar:1995 at: 744987 text: 744.987 shift:(-17,5) bar:2003 at: 757685 text: 757.685 shift:(-12,5) bar:2009 at: 754854 text: 754.854 shift:(-7,5)

Economy

Kraków is one of Poland's most important economic centers, and the economic hub of the Lesser Poland (Małopolska) region. Following the collapse of communism, the private sector has been growing steadily. There are about 50 large multinational companies in the city, including Google, IBM, Motorola, Delphi, MAN SE, General Electric, Hitachi, Philip Morris, Capgemini, and Sabre Holdings, along with other British, German and Scandinavian-based firms. In 2005, Foreign direct investment in Kraków has reached approximately 3.5 billion USD. Kraków has been trying to position itself as Europe's Silicon Valley, based on the large number of local and foreign hi tech companies. The unemployment rate in Kraków was 4.8 percent in May 2007, well below the national average of 13 percent. Kraków is the second city in Poland (after Warsaw) most often visited by foreigners. According to the World Investment Report 2011 by the UN Conference for Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Kraków is also the most emerging city location for investment in global BPO projects (Business Process Outsourcing) in the world.

In 2011, the city budget, which is presented by the Mayor of Kraków on November 15 each year, has a projected revenue of 3,5 billion złoty. The primary sources of revenue were as follows: 14% from the municipal taxation on real estate properties and the use of amenities, 30% in transfers from the national budget, and 34% in state subsidies. Projected expenditures, totaling 3,52 billion złoty, included 21% in city development costs and 79% in city maintenance costs. Of the maintenance costs, as much as 39% were spent on education and childcare. City of Kraków development costs included 41% toward road building, transport, and communication (combined), and 25% for the city's infrastructure and environment. The city has a high bond credit rating, and some 60% of its population is below the age of 45.

Culture

Name	Cracow's Historic centre
State party
Type	Cultural
Criteria	IV
Id	29
Region	Europe and North America
Year	1978
Session	2nd }}

Kraków, the unofficial cultural capital of Poland, was named the official European Capital of Culture for the year 2000 by the European Union. It is a major attraction for both local and international tourists, attracting seven million visitors a year. Major landmarks include the Main Market Square with St. Mary's Basilica and the Sukiennice Cloth Hall, the Wawel Castle, the National Art Museum, the Zygmunt Bell at the Wawel Cathedral, and the medieval St Florian's Gate with the Barbican along the Royal Coronation Route. Kraków has 28 museums and public art galleries. Among them are the main branch of Poland's National Museum and the Czartoryski Museum, the latter featuring works by Leonardo da Vinci and Rembrandt.

Performing Arts

The city has several famous theatres, including the Narodowy Stary Teatr (the National Old Theatre), the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre, the Bagatela Theatre, the Ludowy Theatre, and the Groteska Theatre of Puppetry, as well as the Opera Krakowska and Kraków Operetta. The city's principal concert hall and the home of the Kraków Philharmonic Orchestra is the Kraków Philharmonic (''Filharmonia Krakowska'') built in 1931.

Kraków hosts many annual and biannual artistic events, some of international significance such as the Misteria Paschalia (Baroque music), Sacrum-Profanum (contemporary music), the Cracow Screen Festival (popular music), the Festival of Polish Music (classical music), Dedications (theatre), the Kraków Film Festival (one of Europe's oldest short films events), Biennial of Graphic Arts, and the Jewish Culture Festival. Kraków was the residence of two Polish Nobel laureates in literature, Wisława Szymborska and Czesław Miłosz; a third Nobel laureate, the Yugoslav writer Ivo Andric, lived and studied in Kraków. Other former longtime residents include internationally-renowned Polish film directors Andrzej Wajda and Roman Polanski.

Architecture

Kraków's historic center, which includes the Old Town, Kazimierz and the Wawel Castle, was included as the first of its kind on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1978. The Old Town () is the most prominent example of an old town in the country. For many centuries Kraków was the royal capital of Poland, until Sigismund III Vasa relocated the court to Warsaw in 1596. The whole district is bisected by the Royal Road, the coronation route traversed by the Kings of Poland. The Route begins at St. Florian's Church outside the northern flank of the old city walls in the medieval suburb of Kleparz; passes the Barbican of Kraków (''Barbakan'') built in 1499, and enters Stare Miasto through the Florian Gate. It leads down Floriańska Street through the Main Square, and up Grodzka to Wawel, the former seat of Polish royalty overlooking the Vistula river. Old Town attracts visitors from all over the World. Kraków historic center is one of the 13 places in Poland that are included in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The architectural design of the Old Town had survived all cataclysms of the past and retained its original form coming from the medieval times. The Old Town district of Kraków is home to about six thousand historic sites and more than two million works of art. Its rich variety of historic architecture includes Renaissance, Baroque and Gothic buildings. Kraków's palaces, churches, theatres and mansions display great variety of color, architectural details, stained glass, paintings, sculptures, and furnishings.

Points of interest outside the city include the Wieliczka salt mine, the Tatra Mountains to the south, the historic city of Częstochowa, the former Nazi concentration camp at Auschwitz, and Ojcowski National Park, which includes Pieskowa Skała Castle.

Parks and gardens

There are dozens of gardens, parks and forests in Kraków, several, like the Planty Park, Botanical Garden, Park Krakowski, Jordan Park, Błonia Park and Strzelecki Park], are located in the center of the city and the surrounding districts.

The Planty Park is the best-known park in Kraków. It was established between 1822 and 1830 in place of the old city walls, forming a green belt around the Old Town. It consists of a chain of smaller gardens designed in various styles and adorned with monuments. The park has an area of and a length of 4 kilometers (2.5 miles), forming a scenic walkway popular with Cracovians.

The Jordan Park, the first public park equipped with exercise fixtures, was founded in 1889 by Dr Henryk Jordan on the banks of the Rudawa river. The park equipped with running and exercise tracks, playgrounds, swimming pool, amphitheatre, pavilions, and a pond for boat rowing and water bicycles, is located on the grounds of Kraków’s Błonia Park. The less prominent Park Krakowski was founded in 1885 by Stanisław Rehman but has since been greatly reduced in size because of rapid real estate development. It was a popular destination point with many Cracovians at the end of the 19th century.

Sports

Football is one of the most popular sports in the city, and the teams with the largest following are thirteen-time Polish champions Wisła Kraków, and five-time champions Cracovia. Other football clubs include Hutnik Kraków, Wawel Kraków and one-time Polish champion Garbarnia Kraków. There is also the first-league rugby club Juvenia Kraków. Kraków has a number of additional, equally valued sports teams including eight-time Polish ice hockey champions Cracovia Kraków and the twenty-time women's basketball champions Wisła Kraków.

The Cracovia Marathon, with over a thousand participants from two dozen countries annually, has been held in the city since 2002. Poland's first F1 racing driver Robert Kubica was born and brought up in Krakow, as was Top 10 ranked womans tennis player Agnieszka Radwańska.

Transport

Public transport is based on a fairly dense network of streetcar and bus lines operated by a municipal company, supplemented by a number of private minibus operators. Local trains connect some of the suburbs. The bulk of the city’s historic area has been turned into a pedestrian zone with rickshaws and horse buggies; however, the tramlines run within a three-block radius.

Rail connections are available to most Polish cities. Trains to Warsaw depart every hour. International destinations include Berlin, Budapest, Prague, Hamburg, Lvov, Kiev, and Odessa (June–September). The main railway station is located just outside the Old Town District and is well-served by public transport.

The Kraków airport, (John Paul II International Airport Kraków-Balice, ,) is west of the city. Direct trains cover the route between Kraków Główny train station and the airport in 15 minutes. The annual capacity of the airport is estimated at 1.3 million passengers (second largest airport in Poland); however, in 2007 more than 3.042 million people used the airport, giving Kraków Airport 15 percent of all air passenger traffic in Poland. The passenger terminal is undergoing extension and is being adapted to meet the requirements of the Schengen Treaty. Currently, the airport offers 59 connections and is operated by 2 terminals (international T1 and national T2). The Katowice International Airport is located about 75 minutes from Krakow.

Education

Kraków is a major centre of education. More than ten university or academy-level institutions offer courses in the city, with 170,000 students. Jagiellonian University, the oldest and best known university in Poland and ranked by the Times Higher Education Supplement as the best university in the country, was founded in 1364 as the Cracow University and renamed in 1817 to commemorate the Jagiellonian dynasty of Polish-Lithuanian kings. Its principal academic asset is the Jagiellonian Library, with more than 4 million volumes, including a large collection of medieval manuscripts like Copernicus' ''De Revolutionibus'' and the Balthasar Behem Codex. With 42,325 students (2005) and 3,605 academic staff, the Jagiellonian University is also one of the leading research centres in Poland. Famous historical figures connected with the University include Saint John Cantius, Jan Długosz, Nicolaus Copernicus, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, Jan Kochanowski, King John III Sobieski, Pope John Paul II and Nobel laureates Ivo Andrić and Wisława Szymborska.

AGH University of Science and Technology, established in 1919, is the second-largest technical university in Poland, with more than 15 faculties and student enrollment exceeding 30,000. It was ranked by the Polish edition of Newsweek as the best technical university in the country for the year 2004. During its 80-year history, more than 73,000 students graduated from AGH with master's or bachelor's degrees. Some 3,600 persons were granted the degree of Doctor of Science, and about 900 obtained the qualification of Habilitated Doctor.

Other institutions of higher learning include Academy of Music in Kraków first conceived as conservatory in 1888, one of the oldest and most prestigious conservatories in Central Europe and a major concert venue; Cracow University of Economics, established in 1925; Pedagogical University, in operation since 1946; Agricultural University of Cracow, offering courses since 1890 (initially as a part of Jagiellonian University); Academy of Fine Arts, the oldest Fine Arts Academy in Poland, founded by the Polish painter Jan Matejko; Ludwik Solski Academy for the Dramatic Arts; The Pontifical Academy of Theology; and Cracow University of Technology, which has more than 37,000 graduates.

Knowledge and Innovation Community EIT

Krakow is one of co-location centres of Knowledge and Innovation Community (Sustainable Energy) of The European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT). The complete list of ''co-location centers - KIC Inno Energy'' include: ''CC Germany'' in Karlsruhe, ''CC Alps Valleys'' in Grenoble, ''CC Benelux'' in Eindhoven/Leuven, ''CC Iberia'' in Barcelona, ''CC PolandPlus'' in Krakow, and ''CC Sweden'' in Stockholm.

InnoEnergy is an integrated alliance of reputable organizations from the education, research and industry sectors. It was created based on long standing links of cooperation as well as the principles of excellence. The partners have jointly developed a strategy to tackle the weaknesses of the European innovation landscape in the field of sustainable energy.

Religious sites

The metropolitan city of Kraków is known as the city of churches. The abundance of landmark, historic temples along with the plenitude of monasteries and convents earned the city a countrywide reputation as the "Northern Rome" in the past. The churches of Kraków comprise over 120 places of worship of which over sixty were built in the 20th century. Denominations include Roman Catholicism (48 Churches), Jehovah's Witnesses (10 Kingdom Hall), Protestantism (8 Churches), Buddhism (5), Polish Orthodox Church (1 Church), Polish Catholic Church (1 Church) and Mariavite Church.

Kraków contains also an outstanding collection of monuments of Jewish sacred architecture unmatched anywhere in Poland. Kraków was an influential center of Jewish spiritual life before the outbreak of World War II, with all its manifestations of religious observance from Orthodox to Chasidic and Reform flourishing side by side. There were at least ninety synagogues in Kraków active before the Nazi German invasion of Poland, serving its burgeoning Jewish community of 60,000–80,000 (out of the city's total population of 237,000), established since the early 12th century.

Most synagogues of Kraków were ruined during World War II by the Nazis who despoiled them of all ceremonial objects, and used them as storehouses for ammunition, firefighting equipment, as general storage facilities and stables. The post-Holocaust Jewish population of the city had dwindled to about 5,900 before the end of 1940s, and by 1978, the number was further reduced in size to a mere 600 by some estimates. In recent time, thanks to the efforts of the local Jewish and Polish organizations including foreign financial aid from the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, many synagogues underwent major restorations, while others continue to serve as apartments.

International relations

Contemporary foreign names for the city

Kraków is referred to by various names in different languages. The city is known in Czech and Slovak as ''Krakov'', in Hungarian as , in Lithuanian as , in German as , in Latin, Spanish and Italian as , in French as , in Portuguese as and in Russian as Краков. Ukrainian and Yiddish languages refer to it as (Краків) and respectively. Names of Kraków in different languages are also available.

Twin towns — Sister cities

Kraków is twinned, or maintains close relations, with more than 30 cities around the world:

Bordeaux, France ''(since 1993)''

Bratislava, Slovakia

Budapest, Hungary ''(since 2005)''

Cambridge, Massachusetts>Cambridge, Mass., USA ''(since 1989)''

Curitiba, Brazil ''(since 1993)''

Cusco, Peru

Edinburgh, Scotland, UK ''(since 1995)''

Fes, Morocco ''(since 2004)''

Florence, Italy ''(since 1992)''

Frankfurt am Main>Frankfurt, Germany ''(since 1991)''

Gothenburg>Göteborg, Sweden ''(since 1990)''

Grozny, Russia ''(since 1997)''

Innsbruck in Austria ''(since 1998)''

Kiev, Ukraine ''(since 1993)''

Lahore, Pakistan

La Serena, Chile>La Serena, Chile ''(since 1995)''

Leipzig, Germany ''(since 1995)''

Leuven, Belgium ''(since 1991)''

Lviv, Ukraine ''(since 1995)''

Milan, Italy ''(since 2003)''

Nuremberg, Germany ''(since 1991)''

Orléans, France ''(since 1992)''

Pécs, Hungary ''(since 1998)''

Rochester, New York>Rochester, NY, USA ''(since 1973)''

Quito, Ecuador

Saint Petersburg>St Petersburg, Russia ''(since 2006)''

San Francisco, California>San Francisco, CA, USA '' (since 2009)

Seville, Spain ''(since 2002)''

Solothurn, Switzerland ''(since 1990)''

Tbilisi, Georgia (country)>Georgia

Veliko Turnovo, Bulgaria ''(since 1975)''

Vilnius, Lithuania

Zagreb, Croatia ''(since 1975)''

See also

Lesser Polish Way

Tourism in Poland

References

Bibliography

Notes

Further reading

Jane Hardy, Al Rainnie, ''Restructuring Krakow: Desperately Seeking Capitalism''. Published 1996 by Mansell Publishing, 285 pages. Business, economics, finance. ISBN 0720122317.

Edward Hartwig, ''Kraków'', with Jerzy Broszkiewicz (contributor). Published 1980, by Sport i Turystyka, 239 pages. ISBN 8321723217.

Bolesław T. Łaszewski, ''Kraków: karta z dziejów dwudziestolecia''. Published 1985, by Bicentennial Pub. Corp. (original from the University of Michigan), 132 pages. ISBN 0912757086

Joanna Markin, Bogumiła Gnypowa, ''Kraków: The Guide''. Published 1996 by Pascal Publishing, 342 pages. ISBN 8387037281.

Tim Pepper, Andrew Beattie, ''Krakow''. Published 2007 by Hunter Pub Inc., 160 pages. ISBN 1843063085. The book includes description of public art galleries and museums.

Scott Simpson, ''Krakow''. Published 2003 by Thomas Cook, 192 pages. Transport, geography, sightseeing, history, and culture. Includes weblinks CD. ISBN 1841571873.

Dorota Wąsik, Emma Roper-Evans, ''Krakow''. Published 2002 by Somerset. Cultural guidebook series, 160 pages. ISBN 9630059304.

Richard Watkins, ''Best of Kraków'', Published 2006, by Lonely Planet, 64 pages, complemented by fold-out maps. ISBN 1741048222.

External links

Kraków Travel

Oskar Schindler Factory Krakow

Kraków Tourism information about Krakow

Protect Kraków Heritage Campaign

http://www.krakowmiasto.pl/ (Polish)

Map: Kraków Heritage Under Threat

Category:City counties of Poland Category:Cities and towns in Lesser Poland Voivodeship Category:Former national capitals Category:Historic Jewish communities Category:European Capitals of Culture

af:Krakau als:Krakau ar:كراكوف an:Cracovia ast:Cracovia az:Krakov be:Горад Кракаў be-x-old:Кракаў bs:Kraków br:Kraków bg:Краков ca:Cracòvia cv:Краков cs:Krakov da:Kraków de:Krakau dsb:Krakow et:Kraków el:Κρακοβία es:Cracovia eo:Krakovo eu:Krakovia fa:کراکوف fr:Cracovie fy:Krakau ga:Kraków gd:Kraków gl:Cracovia-Kraków ko:크라쿠프 hy:Կրակով hsb:Krakow hr:Krakov io:Kraków id:Kraków os:Краков is:Kraká it:Cracovia he:קרקוב jv:Kraków kl:Kraków ka:კრაკოვი csb:Krakòwò sw:Krakov la:Cracovia lv:Krakova lt:Krokuva li:Kraków hu:Krakkó mk:Краков mt:Krakovja mr:क्राकूफ ms:Kraków mn:Краков my:ကရားကော့မြို့ na:Kraków nl:Krakau ja:クラクフ nap:Carcovia no:Kraków nn:Kraków nrm:Cracaû oc:Cracòvia pnb:کراکوف nds:Krakau pl:Kraków pt:Cracóvia crh:Krakоv ro:Cracovia qu:Kraków ru:Краков sc:Cracòvia sco:Kraków sq:Krakovi scn:Cracovia simple:Krakow sk:Krakov sl:Krakov szl:Krakůw sr:Краков sh:Krakov fi:Krakova sv:Kraków tl:Kraków, Polonya th:กรากุฟ tr:Kraków uk:Краків ug:Krakow vi:Kraków vo:Kraków war:Kraków yi:קראקע yo:Kraków zh:克拉科夫

playername	Kew Jaliens
fullname	Kew Raffique Jaliens
dateofbirth	September 15, 1978
cityofbirth	Rotterdam
countryofbirth	Netherlands
height
currentclub	Wisła Kraków
clubnumber	2
position	Defender
youthyears1	|youthclubs1 Sagu Boys
youthyears2	|youthclubs2 Capelle
youthyears3	|youthclubs3 DCV
years1	1996–1999 |clubs1 Sparta|caps1 68 |goals1 4
years2	1999–2004 |clubs2 Willem II |caps2 147 |goals2 4
years3	2004–2011 |clubs3 AZ |caps3 166 |goals3 5
years4	2011– |clubs4 Wisła Kraków | caps4 14 | goals4 0
nationalyears1	1998–1999 |nationalteam1 Netherlands U-21 |nationalcaps1 11 |nationalgoals1 0
nationalyears2	2008 |nationalteam2 Netherlands Olympic |nationalcaps2 3 |nationalgoals2 0
nationalyears3	2006–2007 |nationalteam3 Netherlands |nationalcaps3 10 |nationalgoals3 0
pcupdate	18 August 2011
ntupdate	}}

Kew Raffique Jaliens () (born 15 September 1978) is a Dutch footballer, who plays as a defender for Wisła Kraków.

He is the nephew of Kenneth Jaliens, the technical director of the Surinamese national team.

Club career

Sparta

Kew Jaliens started his career at Sparta and made his league debut against FC Groningen at age of 18. Jaliens became a regular in the starting 11. He finished his career at Sparta with 68 league appearances scoring 4 goals.

Willem II

Jaliens signed for Willem II in 1999 and made his league debut in a match against FC Den Bosch. He scored his first goal against FC Twente Enschede.

AZ

In 2004 Jaliens signed for AZ. Jaliens made his league debut against SC Heerenveen. He scored his first goal for AZ against Vitesse Arnhem. In July 2007 he signed a contract extension to 2012, with AZ director of football Marcel Brands, who described him as a "cornerstone of the team". Jaliens also took a part in winning the Eredivisie in 2008 and Dutch Super Cup in 2009.

Wisła Kraków

On 26 January 2011 Jaliens joined Polish Ekstraklasa side Wisła Kraków on a free transfer from AZ. He signed a two and a half year deal .

International career

In 2006 Jaliens received a call-up from Marco van Basten and made his debut for the senior side against Ecuador.

He was selected for the 23-man Netherlands squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup finals that were held in Germany. Jaliens played one game in the tournament against Argentina which Netherlands kept a clean sheet.

Jaliens has represented the Netherlands 10 times.

Beijing Olympics

Jaliens was selected as the three over aged players in the Netherlands football team at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Jaliens played all three games in the tournament against United States, Japan and Nigeria.

Career statistics

! Season	! Club	! Competition	! Matches	! Goals
1996–97	Sparta Rotterdam	Sparta	Eredivisie	2	0
1997–98	Sparta Rotterdam	Sparta	Eredivisie	32	3
1998–99	Sparta Rotterdam	Sparta	Eredivisie	32	0
1999–00	Sparta Rotterdam	Sparta	Eredivisie	2	1
	Willem II (football club)	Willem II	Eredivisie	22	0
2000–01	Willem II (football club)	Willem II	Eredivisie	31	2
2001–02	Willem II (football club)	Willem II	Eredivisie	29	0
2002–03	Willem II (football club)	Willem II	Eredivisie	32	1
2003–04	Willem II (football club)	Willem II	Eredivisie	33	1
2004–05	AZ Alkmaar	AZ	Eredivisie	22	1
2005–06	AZ Alkmaar	AZ	Eredivisie	30	0
2006–07	AZ Alkmaar	AZ	Eredivisie	28	1
2007–08	AZ Alkmaar	AZ	Eredivisie	30	2
		Total	325	12

Honours

AZ

Eredivisie: 2008–09

Dutch Super Cup: 2009

Wisła Kraków

Ekstraklasa: 2010–11

References

External links

Category:Dutch footballers Category:Netherlands international footballers Category:Dutch expatriate footballers Category:Eredivisie players Category:Ekstraklasa players Category:Sparta Rotterdam players Category:AZ Alkmaar players Category:Willem II Tilburg players Category:Wisła Kraków players Category:Expatriate footballers in Poland Category:2006 FIFA World Cup players Category:People from Rotterdam Category:Dutch people of Surinamese descent Category:Olympic footballers of the Netherlands Category:Footballers at the 2008 Summer Olympics Category:1978 births Category:Living people

ca:Kew Jaliens cs:Kew Jaliens da:Kew Jaliens de:Kew Jaliens es:Kew Jaliens fr:Kew Jaliens id:Kew Jaliens it:Kew Jaliens nl:Kew Jaliens ja:ケウ・ヤリエンス no:Kew Jaliens pl:Kew Jaliens pt:Kew Jaliens ru:Ялинс, Кью simple:Kew Jaliens sl:Kew Jaliens fi:Kew Jaliens zh:基奧·耶利安斯

Name	Saul Williams
Background	solo_singer
Birth name	Saul Stacey Williams
Born	February 29, 1972
Genre	Hip hop, Spoken word, poetry, electronic, Industrial hip hop
Occupation	PoetWriterSingerMusicianActorVoice Actor
Instrument	Vocals
Associated acts	Trent Reznor, Serj Tankian, Zack de la Rocha, Thavius Beck, Atari Teenage Riot, Buckethead
Website	Official Site }}

Saul Stacey Williams (born February 29, 1972) is an American poet, writer, actor and musician known for his blend of poetry and alternative hip hop and for his leading role in the 1998 independent film ''Slam''.

Biography

The youngest of three children, Williams was born in Newburgh, New York. He attended Newburgh Free Academy for high school, where he would write his song "Black Stacey." After graduating from Morehouse College with a B.A. in acting and philosophy, Williams moved to New York City to earn a Master's Degree at New York University in acting. There, he found himself at the center of the New York cafe poetry scene.

Williams and artist Marcia Jones began their relationship in 1995 as collaborative artists on the Brooklyn performance art and spoken word circuit. Their daughter, Saturn, was born in 1996. His collection of poems ''S/HE'' is a series of reflections on the demise of the relationship. [Marcia Jones], a visual artist and art professor, created the cover artwork for The Seventh Octave, images through-out S/HE in response to Williams, and set designed his 2001 album ''Amethyst Rock Star''. Saturn has recently been performing with her father on his 2008 concert tour .

On his 36th birthday, February 29, 2008, Williams married his girlfriend of five years, actress Persia White. Williams met White in 2003 when he made a guest appearance on the TV show ''Girlfriends'' as a poet named Sivad. (1993). On January 17, 2009, White announced via her MySpace blog that she and Williams were no longer together.

Williams is a vegan.

Career

By 1995, he had become an open mic poet and, in 1996, he won the title of Nuyorican Poets Cafe's Grand Slam Champion. The documentary film ''SlamNation'' follows Williams and the other members of the 1996 Nuyorican Poets Slam team (Beau Sia, Mums da Schemer and Jessica Care Moore) as they compete in the 1996 National Poetry Slam held in Portland, Oregon.

The following year, Williams landed the lead role in the 1998 feature film ''Slam.'' Williams served as both a writer and actor on the film, which would win both the Sundance Festival Grand Jury Prize and the Cannes Camera D'Or (Golden Camera) and serve to introduce Williams to international audiences.

Williams was at this time breaking into music. He had performed with such artists as Nas, The Fugees, Christian Alvarez, Blackalicious, Erykah Badu, KRS-One, Zack De La Rocha, De La Soul, and DJ Krust, as well as poets Allen Ginsberg and Sonia Sanchez. After releasing a string of EPs, in 2001 he released the LP ''Amethyst Rock Star'' with producer Rick Rubin and in September 2004 his self-titled album to much acclaim. He played several shows supporting Nine Inch Nails on their European tour in summer 2005, and has also supported The Mars Volta.

Williams was also invited to the Lollapalooza music festival in Summer 2005. The Chicago stage allowed Williams to attract a wider audience. He also appeared on NIN's album ''Year Zero'', and supported the group on their 2006 North American tour. On the tour Williams announced that Trent Reznor would co-produce his next album.

This collaboration resulted in 2007's ''The Inevitable Rise and Liberation of NiggyTardust!''. This album was available only at the website niggytardust.com until a physical CD of the album was issued. The physical release included new tracks and extended album artwork. The first 100,000 customers on the website had the option to download a free lower-quality audio version of the album. The other option was for users to pay $5 to support the artist directly and be given the choice of downloading the higher-quality MP3 version or the lossless FLAC version. The material has been produced by Trent Reznor and mixed by Alan Moulder. It was Reznor who said that, after his own recent dealings with record labels, they should release it independently and directly.

As a writer, Williams has been published in ''The New York Times'', ''Esquire'', ''Bomb Magazine'' and ''African Voices'', as well as having released four collections of poetry. As a poet and musician, Williams has toured and lectured across the world, appearing at many universities and colleges. In his interview in the book, ''Words in Your Face: A Guided Tour Through Twenty Years of the New York City Poetry Slam'', Williams explained why he creates within so many genres, saying:

Williams is a vocal critic of the War on Terrorism and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan; among his better-known works are the anti-war anthems "Not In My Name" and "Act III Scene 2 (Shakespeare)". In early 2008, a Nike Sparq Training commercial featured Williams' song "List of Demands (Reparations)".

In a November 2008 interview with Wired.com, Williams talked about his forthcoming projects:

In January 2009, he released "NGH WHT - The Dead Emcee Scrolls with The Arditti Quartet", a reading of his 2006 poetry book of the same name. This collaboration with Thomas Kessler (who also set '',said the shotgun to the head'' to music) is released with two payment options: listeners may download Chapters 18-22 of the 27-minute composition for free (in mp3 format), or for $6, can download the entire 33-chapter composition in lossless .aif format, along with the isolated vocal and quartet multitrack stems. The entire paid download totals in size at 563 Megabyte.

He currently resides in Paris, France.

Saul has recently released a new song 'Explain My Heart' from his forthcoming album Volcanic Sunlight. Williams showcased the album at London's Hoxton Bar Kitchen on January 26, 2011. Livemusic.fm interviewed Williams on the evening and made a subsequent film. Artist Alex Templeton-Ward produced the film. When Williams was asked what the point of poetry was he said "I'm making this up, I have no idea but here we go, I think that it would be to express, to share, to relieve, to explore", "for me poetry offers some what of a cathartic experience. I am able to move through emotions and emotional experience particularly, you know, break-ups, difficulties in all the things that I may face, whether that is with an industry or a loved one or whomever, there needs to be an infiltration process, like you have a window open over there. That is the purpose of poetry - it is the window that opens that allows some air in, some other insight, some other possibility so we can explore all that we feel, all that we think but with the space to see more than what we know, because there is so much more than we know.", "If I didn't open myself to the possibilities of the unknown then I would be lost."

Discography

Albums/EPs

''Penny for a Thought / Purple Pigeons'' (2000)

''Amethyst Rock Star'' (2001)

''Not in My Name'' (2003)

''Saul Williams'' (2004)

''The Inevitable Rise and Liberation of NiggyTardust!'' (2007)

''NGH WHT - The Dead Emcee Scrolls with The Arditti Quartet'' (2009)

''Volcanic Sunlight'' (2011)

Guest and compilation appearances

"Twice the First Time" on ''Eargasms - Crucialpoetics Vol. 1'' (1997)

"Elohim (1972)" on ''Black Whole Styles'' (1998)

"Ohm" on ''Lyricist Lounge, Volume One'' (1999)

"Coded Language" on ''Coded Language'' by DJ Krust (1999)

"Spongebob Squarepants" (2001)

"Release" with Lyrics Born and Zack De La Rocha on ''Blazing Arrow'' by Blackalicious (2002)

"Time (Jungle) (Temple Of Soul Mix)" on ''Nublu Sessions'', mixed by Wax Poetic (2003)

"Sent from Sandy Shores" (with Sacajawea) on ''Dreams of Water Themes'' by Adventure Time (2003)

''"Wake up Show Freestyles"'' by Sway and King Tech (2004)

"Three Fingers" on ''Enter the Chicken'' by Buckethead & Friends (2005)

"Sea Lion (Extended)" (with Will Oldham) on "Sea Lion" by Sage Francis (2005)

"Mr. Nichols" on ''Sound Mirrors'' by Coldcut (2006)

"April Showers, April Tears" on ''¿What'' by Stuart Davis (2006)

",said the shotgun to the head" on ''Thomas Kessler'' by Thomas Kessler (2006)

"Survivalism" and "Me, I'm Not" on ''Year Zero'' by Nine Inch Nails (2007)

"Gunshots By Computer" and "Survivalism" on ''Y34RZ3R0R3M1X3D'' by Nine Inch Nails (2007)

"Lyrical Gunplay" on ''Thru'' by Thavius Beck

"Dance Of The Dead" on ''The Unbound Project, Vol. 1'' a compilation benefit album for Mumia Abu-Jamal

"List Of Demands" on Nike Sparq Commercial

"Black Stacy Remix" ft. Nas

"U Can Do It" (with Maeckes) on "KIDS" by Maeckes (2010)

"Dance or Die" on ''The ArchAndroid'' by Janelle Monáe (2010)

Bibliography

''The Seventh Octave'', 1998, Moore Black Press ISBN 0-9658308-1-0

''She'', 1999, MTV/Pocketbooks ISBN 0-671-03977-6

'',said the shotgun to the head'', 2003, MTV/Pocketbooks ISBN 0-7434-7079-6

''The Dead Emcee Scrolls'', 2006, MTV/Pocketbooks ISBN 1-4165-1632-8

Mentioned in Raine Maida's song "One Second Chance" off his 2007 Solo Album - "The Hunters Lullabye"

Filmography

''Downtown 81'' (voice) (1981/2000)

''Underground Voices'' (1996)

''Slam'' (1998)

''SlamNation'' (1998)

''I'll Make Me a World'' (1999)

''King Of The Korner'' (2000)

''K-PAX'' (2001)

''The N Word'' (2004)

''Lackawanna Blues'' (2005)

References

External links

Official Site

Saul Williams at Discogs

Category:1972 births Category:African American actors Category:African American musicians Category:African American poets Category:African American performance poets Category:American activists Category:American anti–Iraq War activists Category:American film actors Category:American poets Category:American rappers Category:American television actors Category:American vegans Category:Anti-corporate activists Category:Copyright activists Category:Integral art Category:Living people Category:Morehouse College alumni Category:Actors from New York Category:Musicians from New York Category:People from Newburgh, New York Category:Slam poets Category:Urban fiction Category:American spoken word artists

cs:Saul Williams de:Saul Williams es:Saul Williams fr:Saul Williams it:Saul Williams hu:Saul Williams no:Saul Williams pl:Saul Williams pt:Saul Williams ru:Уильямс, Сол sv:Saul Williams

name	General Levy
background	solo_singer
birth name	Paul Levy
born	28 May 1971
origin	London, UK
instrument	Vocals
genre	Reggae
notable instruments	}}

General Levy (real name Paul Levy) is a London born ragga vocalist, regularly employed on studio tracks by drum and bass DJs. He is best known for the track "Incredible" which he recorded with M-Beat.

Biography

General Levy's first major releases were with the independent Fashion record label who eventually signed a distribution deal with London Records for the re-releases of the tracks he had recorded. He had earlier releases with the producers Lloydy Crucial and Robbo Ranx but these were mainly tracks that were hits on the underground dance scene. General Levy was ostracised by the UK jungle scene in 1994, due to comments he made relating to his collaboration with M-Beat on the seminal "Incredible". He had claimed in an interview with ''The Face'' that "I run jungle at the moment". Many argue that certain artists are lambasted while other artists are able to communicate their feelings without any backlash. "Incredible" was featured in the film ''Ali G Indahouse''.

General Levy introduced and popularized the slang word "booyaka" which has been attributed to "the closest sound to a gunshot", but which Levy claims is a salutation in the jungle scene. Booyaka is the catch-phrase that the character Ali G adopts in the film "Ali G Indahouse". General Levy briefly collaborated with Rocco Barker of Flesh For Lulu in 'The Space Police'. Levy also featured on the song "Only God Can Judge Me" by R&B; singer, Mark Morrison.

Levy featured on many sound systems in the late 1980s and early 1990s such as Java and Tippatone Sound.

Single discography

"Monkey Man" (1993) - UK #75

"Incredible" (1994) - UK #39 †

"Incredible" (1994) (remix) - UK #8 †

"Shake (What Ya Mama Gave Ya)" (2004) - UK #51 ‡

"Bring It On" (Dancehall Party Riddim) (2007) ¶

† Credited to M-Beat featuring General Levy ‡ Credited to General Levy vs Zeus featuring Bally Jagpal ¶ Credited as Ragga Meridional Crew

References

External links

Category:Living people Category:Jamaican reggae musicians Category:British reggae musicians Category:1971 births

de:General Levy fr:General Levy sv:Paul Levy

name	Ramesses XI
alt	Also written Ramses and Rameses
nomenhiero	z:z-iwn-nTr:HqA-ms-N36:r*r-C12-R19-C2-xa
Nomen	''Ramesses-Khamwaset-Meryamun-Netjerheqaiunu''
prenomenhiero	H-p:t-stp:N17-mAat-ra:mn
Prenomen	''Menmaatre-setpenptah''
horus	''Kanakht Meryre''
golden	''Werpehtisankhtawy-ityankhwedjaseneb-seheribmaat-seheteptawy''
nebty	''Userkhepesh-hedhefenu''
reign	1107–1078/77 BC
predecessor	Ramesses X
successor	Smendes
father	Ramesses X?
mother	Tyti (?)
spouse	Baketwernel, Tentamun
children	Duathathor-Henuttawy, Tentamun
dynasty	20th Dynasty
died	1078 or 1077 BC
burial	KV4 }}

Ramesses XI (also written Ramses and Rameses) reigned from 1107 BC to 1078 BC or 1077 BC and was the tenth and final king of the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt. He ruled Egypt for at least 29 years although some Egyptologists think he could have ruled for as long as 30 years. The latter figure would be up to 2 years beyond this king's highest known date of Year 10 of the Whm-Mswt era or Year 28 of his reign. One scholar, Ad Thijs, has even suggested that Ramesses XI reigned as long as 33 years—such is the degree of uncertainty surrounding the end of his long reign. He was, perhaps, the son of Ramesses X by Queen Tyti who was a King's Mother. He married both ''Baketwernel'' a King's Sister, and ''Tentamun'', the daughter of Nebseny, with whom he fathered Henuttawy--the future wife of the high priest Pinedjem I.

It is believed that Ramesses ruled into his Year 29 since a graffito records that the High Priest of Amun Piankhy returned to Thebes from Nubia on III Shemu day 23—or just 3 days into what would have been the start of Ramesses XI's 29th regnal year. Piankhy is known to have campaigned in Nubia during Year 28 of Ramesses XI's reign (or Year 10 of the Whm Mswt) and would have returned home to Egypt in the following year.

Background

Ramesses XI's reign was characterized by the gradual disintegration of the Egyptian state. Civil conflict was already evident around the beginning of his reign when High Priest of Amon, Amenhotep, was ousted from office by the king with the aid of Nubian soldiers under command of Pinehesy, Viceroy of Nubia, for overstepping his authority with Ramesses XI. Tomb robbing was prevalent all over Thebes as Egypt's fortunes declined and her Asiatic empire was lost.

As the chaos and insecurity continued, Ramesses was forced to inaugurate a triumvirate in his Regnal Year 19, with the High Priest of Amun Herihor ruling Thebes and Upper Egypt and Smendes controlling Lower Egypt. Herihor had risen from the ranks of the Egyptian military to restore a degree of order, and became the new high Priest of Amun. This period was officially called the Era of the Renaissance or ''Whm Mswt'' by Egyptians. Herihor amassed power and titles at the expense of Pinehesy, Viceroy of Nubia, whom he had expelled from Thebes. This rivalry soon developed into full-fledged civil war under Herihor's successor. At Thebes, Herihor usurped royal power without actually deposing Ramesses, and he effectively became the defacto ruler of Upper Egypt because his authority superseded the king's.

Herihor died around Year 6 of the ''Whm Mswt'' (Year 24 of Ramesses XI) and was succeeded as High Priest by Piankh. Piankh initiated one or two unsuccessful campaigns into Nubia to wrest control of this gold-producing region from Pinehesy's hands, but his efforts were ultimately fruitless as Nubia slipped permanently out of Egypt's grasp. This watershed event worsened Egypt's woes, because she had now lost control of all her imperial possessions and was denied access to a regular supply of Nubian gold.

Reign length

Ramesses XI's reign is notable for a large number of important papyri that have been uncovered, including the ''Adoption Papyrus'', which mentions Regnal Years 1 and 18 of his reign; the ''Turin Taxation Papyrus''; the ''House-list Papyrus''; and an entire series of ''Late Ramesside Letters'' written by the scribes Dhutmose, Butehamun, and the High Priest Piankh —the latter of which chronicle the severe decline of the king's power even in the eyes of his own officials. Late Ramesside Letter 9 establishes that the Whm Mswt period lasted into a 10th Year (which equates into Year 28 proper of Ramesses XI).

Ad Thijs, in his GM 173 paper, notes that the ''House-list Papyrus'', which is anonymously dated to Year 12 of Ramesses XI (i.e., the document was compiled in either Year 12 of the pre-Renaissance period or during the ''Whm Mswt'' era itself), mentions two officials: the Chief Doorkeeper Pnufer, and the Chief Warehouseman Dhutemhab. These individuals were recorded as only ordinary Doorkeeper and Warehouseman in ''Papyri BM 10403'' and ''BM 10052'' respectively, which are explicitly dated to Year 1 and 2 of the ''Whm Mswt'' period. This would suggest that the Year 12 ''House-list Papyrus'' postdates these two documents and was created in Year 12 of the ''Whm Mswt'' era instead (or Regnal Year 30 proper of Ramesses XI), which would account for these two individuals' promotions. Thijs then proceeds to use several anonymous Year 14 and 15 dates in another papyrus, ''BM 9997'', to argue that Ramesses XI lived at least into his 32nd and 33rd Regnal Years (or Years 14 and 15 of the ''Whm Mswt''). This document mentions a certain Sermont, who was only titled an Ordinary Medjay (Nubian) in the Year 12 ''House-list Papyrus'' but is called "Chief of the Medjay" in ''Papyrus BM 9997''. Sermont's promotion would thus mean that ''BM 9997'' postdates the ''House-list Papyrus'' and must be placed late in the Renaissance period.

If true, then Ramesses XI should have survived into his 33rd Regnal Year or Year 15 of the ''Whm Mswt'' era before dying. Unfortunately, however, it must be stressed that there are clear inconsistencies in the description of an individual's precise title even within the same source document itself. For instance, Papyrus Mayer A mentions both a certain Dhuthope, a doorkeeper of the temple of Amun as well as a Dhuthope, Chief Doorkeeper of the temple of Amun. The reference to the first Dhuthope occurs in the regular papyrus entry while the other appears towards the end of the list but few people would dispute that they refer to the same man. Similarly, the Necropolis Journal entry from Year 17 of Ramesses XI lists the Chief Workman Nekhemmut as well as a certain workman named Nekhemmut, son of Amenua. While they appear to be the same perso--at first glance--their official titles are different with the latter lacking the senior title 'Chief'. Closer inspection reveals that the latter was actually named as one of eight prisoners in a while the Chief workman Nekhemmut was listed in Year 17 to be serving in office and hardly a prisoner. Hence, Thijs' case for a Year 33 proper for Ramesses XI should be treated with caution. Since there are two attested promotions of individuals in 2 separate papyri, however, there is a possibility that Ramesses XI did live into his 33rd Regnal Year. Against this view, however, is the fact that no evidence survives of any Heb Sed Feasts for Ramesses XI. At present, only Thijs' proposal that Papyrus BM 10054 dates to Year 10 of the Whm-Mswt (or Year 28 proper of Ramesses XI) has been confirmed by other scholars such as Von Beckerath and Annie Gasse—the latter in a JEA 87 (2001) paper which studied several newly discovered fragments belonging to this document. Consequently, it would appear that Ramesses XI's highest undisputed date is presently Year 11 of the Whm-Mswt (or Year 29 proper) of his reign, when Piankh's Nubian campaign terminated which means that the pharaoh had a minimum reign of 29 years when he died—-which can perhaps be extended to 30 years due to the "gap between the beginning of Dynasty 21 and the reign of Ramesses XI." with 33 years being hypothethical at present. This also fits in well with Kenneth Kitchen's recently published suggestion that Late Ramesside Letter 41 (not 62) (Wente, 75f; cf 15) with reference to West Theban graffito No.1393 likely shows that the Whm-Mswt era reached into a Year 12 (or Year 30 proper of Ramesses XI.)

When Ramesses XI died, the village of Deir El Medina was abandoned because the Royal Necropolis was shifted northward to Tanis. There was no further need for their services at Thebes.

Burial

Sometime during this troubled period, Ramesses XI died in obscurity. While he had a tomb prepared for himself in the Valley of the Kings (KV4), it was left unfinished and only partly decorated since Ramesses XI instead arranged to have himself buried away from Thebes, possibly near Memphis. This pharaoh's tomb, however, includes some unusual features, including four rectangular, rather than square, pillars in its burial chamber and an extremely deep central burial shaft– at over 30 feet or 10 metres long– which was perhaps designed as an additional security device to prevent tomb robbery. Ramesses XI's tomb was used as a workshop for processing funerary materials from the burials of Hatshepsut, Thutmose III and perhaps Thutmose I during the 21st dynasty under the reign of the High Priest of Thebes, Pinedjem I. Ramesses XI's tomb has stood open since antiquity and was used as a dwelling by the Copts.

Since Ramesses XI had himself buried in Lower Egypt, Smendes rose to the kingship of Egypt, based on the well known custom that he who buried the king inherited the throne. Since Smendes buried Ramesses XI, he could legally assume the crown of Egypt and inaugurate the 21st Dynasty from his hometown at Tanis, even if he did not control Middle and Upper Egypt, which were now effectively in the hands of the High Priests of Amun at Thebes.

References

External links

Category:1070s BC deaths Category:Pharaohs of the Twentieth dynasty of Egypt Category:Year of birth unknown

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