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Humans (known taxonomically as ''Homo sapiens'', Latin for "wise man" or "knowing man") are the only living species in the ''Homo'' genus of bipedal primates in Hominidae, the great ape family. Anatomically modern humans originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago, reaching full behavioral modernity around 50,000 years ago.

Humans have a highly developed brain, capable of abstract reasoning, language, introspection, and problem solving. This mental capability, combined with an erect body carriage that frees the hands for manipulating objects, has allowed humans to make far greater use of tools than any other living species on Earth. Other higher-level thought processes of humans, such as self-awareness, rationality, and sapience, are considered to be defining features of what constitutes a "person".

Like most higher primates, humans are social animals. Humans are uniquely adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression, the exchange of ideas, and organization. Humans create complex social structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups, from families to nations. Social interactions between humans have established an extremely wide variety of values, social norms, and rituals, which together form the basis of human society. With individuals widespread in every continent except Antarctica, humans are a cosmopolitan species. In January 2011, the human population was estimated to be about 6.94 billion.

Humans are noted for their desire to understand and influence their environment, seeking to explain and manipulate phenomena through science, philosophy, mythology, and religion. This natural curiosity has led to the development of advanced tools and skills, which are passed down culturally; humans are the only species known to build fires, cook their food, clothe themselves, create art, and use numerous other technologies. The study of humans is the scientific discipline of anthropology.

Etymology

The English adjective ''human'' is a Middle English loanword from Old French '''', ultimately from Latin '''', the adjective form of '''' "man". The word's use as a noun (with a plural: ''humans'') dates to the 16th century. The native English term ''man'' is now often reserved for male adults, but the term "mankind" is occasionally used to refer to the species generally in Modern English. This use is considered by some to be obsolete. The word is from Proto-Germanic '''', from a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root '''', a cognate to Sanskrit ''manu-''.

The generic name ''Homo'' is a learned 18th century derivation from Latin '''' "man", ultimately "earthly being" (Old Latin '''', a cognate to Old English '''' "man", from PIE '''', meaning 'earth' or 'ground').

History

Evolution

Scientific study of human evolution is concerned, primarily, with the development of the genus ''Homo'', but usually involves studying other hominids and hominines as well, such as ''Australopithecus''. "Modern humans" are defined as the ''Homo sapiens'' species, of which the only extant subspecies is known as ''Homo sapiens sapiens''. ''Homo sapiens idaltu'' (roughly translated as "elder wise human"), the other known subspecies, is now extinct. ''Homo neanderthalensis'', which became extinct 30,000 years ago, has sometimes been classified as a subspecies, "''Homo sapiens neanderthalensis''"; genetic studies now suggest that the functional DNA of modern humans and Neanderthals diverged 500,000 years ago. Similarly, the discovered specimens of the ''Homo rhodesiensis'' species have been classified by some as a subspecies, but this classification is not widely accepted.

Anatomically modern humans first appear in the fossil record in Africa about 195,000 years ago, and studies of molecular biology give evidence that the approximate time of divergence from the common ancestor of all modern human populations was 200,000 years ago. The broad study of African genetic diversity headed by Dr. Sarah Tishkoff found the San people to express the greatest genetic diversity among the 113 distinct populations sampled, making them one of 14 "ancestral population clusters". The research also located the origin of modern human migration in south-western Africa, near the coastal border of Namibia and Angola.

The evolutionary history of primates can be traced back 65 million years. Primates are one of the oldest of all surviving placental mammal groups. The oldest known primate-like mammal species (those of the genus ''Plesiadapis'') come from North America, but inhabited Eurasia and Africa on a wide scale during the tropical conditions of the Paleocene and Eocene. Molecular evidence suggests that the last common ancestor between humans and the remaining great apes diverged 4–8 million years ago.

The gorillas were the first group to split, then the chimpanzees (genus ''Pan'') split off from the line leading to the humans. The functional portion of human DNA is approximately 98.4% identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms (see human evolutionary genetics). Therefore, the closest living relatives of humans are gorillas and chimpanzees, as they share a relatively recent common ancestor.

Humans are probably most closely related to two chimpanzee species: the Common Chimpanzee and the Bonobo. Full genome sequencing has resulted in the conclusion that "after 6.5 [million] years of separate evolution, the differences between chimpanzee and human are ten times greater than those between two unrelated people and ten times less than those between rats and mice". Current estimates of suggested concurrence between functional human and chimpanzee DNA sequences range between 95% and 99%; Early estimates indicated that the human lineage may have diverged from that of chimpanzees about five million years ago, and from that of gorillas about eight million years ago. However, a hominid skull discovered in Chad in 2001, classified as ''Sahelanthropus tchadensis'', is approximately seven million years old, and may be evidence of an earlier divergence.

Human evolution is characterised by a number of important changes—morphological, developmental, physiological, and behavioural—which have taken place since the split between the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The first major morphological change was the evolution of a bipedal locomotor adaptation from an arboreal or semi-arboreal one, with all its attendant adaptations (a valgus knee, low intermembral index (long legs relative to the arms), reduced upper-body strength).

The human species developed a much larger brain than that of other primates – typically 1,400 cm³ in modern humans, over twice the size of that of a chimpanzee or gorilla. The pattern of human postnatal brain growth differs from that of other apes (heterochrony), and allows for extended periods of social learning and language acquisition in juvenile humans. Physical anthropologists argue that the differences between the structure of human brains and those of other apes are even more significant than their differences in size.

Other significant morphological changes included the evolution of a power and precision grip, a reduced masticatory system, a reduction of the canine tooth, and the descent of the larynx and hyoid bone, making speech possible. An important physiological change in humans was the evolution of hidden oestrus, or concealed ovulation, which may have coincided with the evolution of important behavioural changes, such as pair bonding. Another significant behavioural change was the development of material culture, with human-made objects becoming increasingly common and diversified over time. The relationship between all these changes is the subject of ongoing debate.

The forces of natural selection have continued to operate on human populations, with evidence that certain regions of the genome display directional selection in the past 15,000 years.

Paleolithic

Anatomically modern humans evolved from archaic ''Homo sapiens'' in Africa in the Middle Paleolithic, about 200,000 years ago. By the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period (50,000 BP [Before Present]), full behavioral modernity, including language, music and other cultural universals had developed.

The out of Africa migration is estimated to have occurred about 70,000 years BP. Modern humans subsequently spread to all continents, replacing earlier hominids: they inhabited Eurasia and Oceania by 40,000 years BP, and the Americas at least 14,500 years BP. A popular theory is that they displaced ''Homo neanderthalensis'' and other species descended from ''Homo erectus'' (which had inhabited Eurasia as early as 2 million years ago) through more successful reproduction and competition for resources. The exact manner or extent of the coexistence and interaction of these species is unknown and continues to be a controversial subject.

Evidence from archaeogenetics accumulating since the 1990s has lent strong support to the "out-of-Africa" scenario, and has marginalized the competing multiregional hypothesis, which proposed that modern humans evolved, at least in part, from independent hominid populations.

Geneticists Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending of the University of Utah propose that the variation in human DNA is minute compared to that of other species. They also propose that during the Late Pleistocene, the human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs – no more than 10,000, and possibly as few as 1,000 – resulting in a very small residual gene pool. Various reasons for this hypothetical bottleneck have been postulated, one being the Toba catastrophe theory.

Transition to civilization

Until c. 10,000 years ago, most humans lived as hunter-gatherers. They generally lived in small nomadic groups known as band societies. The advent of agriculture prompted the Neolithic Revolution, when access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements, the domestication of animals and the use of metal tools for the first time in history. Agriculture encouraged trade and cooperation, and led to complex society. Because of the significance of this date for human society, it is the epoch of the Holocene calendar or Human Era.

About 6,000 years ago, the first proto-states developed in Mesopotamia, Egypt's Nile Valley and the Indus Valleys. Military forces were formed for protection, and government bureaucracies for administration. States cooperated and competed for resources, in some cases waging wars. Around 2,000–3,000 years ago, some states, such as Persia, India, China, Rome, and Greece, developed through conquest into the first expansive empires. Influential religions, such as Judaism, originating in West Asia, and Hinduism, a religious tradition that originated in South Asia, also rose to prominence at this time.

The late Middle Ages saw the rise of revolutionary ideas and technologies. In China, an advanced and urbanized society promoted innovations and sciences, such as printing and seed drilling. In India, major advancements were made in mathematics, philosophy, religion and metallurgy. The Islamic Golden Age saw major scientific advancements in Muslim empires. In Europe, the rediscovery of classical learning and inventions such as the printing press led to the Renaissance in the 14th and 15th centuries. Over the next 500 years, exploration and colonialism brought great parts of the world under European control, leading to later struggles for independence. The Scientific Revolution in the 17th century and the Industrial Revolution in the 18th–19th centuries promoted major innovations in transport, such as the railway and automobile; energy development, such as coal and electricity; and government, such as representative democracy and Communism.

With the advent of the Information Age at the end of the 20th century, modern humans live in a world that has become increasingly globalized and interconnected. As of 2010, almost 2 billion humans are able to communicate with each other via the Internet, and 3.3 billion by mobile phone subscriptions.

Although interconnection between humans has encouraged the growth of science, art, discussion, and technology, it has also led to culture clashes and the development and use of weapons of mass destruction. Human civilization has led to environmental destruction and pollution, producing an ongoing mass extinction of other forms of life called the holocene extinction event, that may be further accelerated by global warming in the future.

Habitat and population

Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to water and, depending on the lifestyle, other natural resources used for subsistence, such as populations of animal prey for hunting and arable land for growing crops and grazing livestock. But humans have a great capacity for altering their habitats by means of technology; through irrigation, urban planning, construction, transport, manufacturing goods, deforestation and desertification. Deliberate habitat alteration is often done with the goals of increasing material wealth, increasing thermal comfort, improving the amount of food available, improving aesthetics, or improving ease of access to resources or other human settlements. With the advent of large-scale trade and transport infrastructure, proximity to these resources has become unnecessary, and in many places, these factors are no longer a driving force behind the growth and decline of a population. Nonetheless, the manner in which a habitat is altered is often a major determinant in population change.

Technology has allowed humans to colonize all of the continents and adapt to virtually all climates. Within the last century, humans have explored Antarctica, the ocean depths, and outer space, although large-scale colonization of these environments is not yet feasible. With a population of over six billion, humans are among the most numerous of the large mammals. Most humans (61%) live in Asia. The remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Oceania (0.5%).

Human habitation within closed ecological systems in hostile environments, such as Antarctica and outer space, is expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has been very sporadic, with no more than thirteen humans in space at any given time. Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the Moon. As of , no other celestial body has been visited by humans, although there has been a continuous human presence in space since the launch of the initial crew to inhabit the International Space Station on October 31, 2000. However, other celestial bodies have been visited by human-made objects.

Since 1800, the human population has increased from one billion to over six billion. In 2004, some 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion people (39.7%) lived in urban areas, and this percentage is expected to continue to rise throughout the 21st century. In February 2008, the U.N. estimated that half the world's population will live in urban areas by the end of the year. Problems for humans living in cities include various forms of pollution and crime, especially in inner city and suburban slums.

Humans have had a dramatic effect on the environment. As humans are rarely preyed upon, they have been described as superpredators. Currently, through land development, combustion of fossil fuels and pollution, humans are thought to be the main contributor to global climate change. Human activity is believed to be a major contributor to the ongoing Holocene extinction event, which is a form of mass extinction. If this continues at its current rate it is predicted that it will wipe out half of all species over the next century.

Biology

Anatomy

Human body types vary substantially. Although body size is largely determined by genes, it is also significantly influenced by environmental factors such as diet and exercise. The average height of an adult human is about 1.5 to 1.8 m (5 to 6 feet) tall, although this varies significantly from place to place and depending on ethnic origin. The average mass of an adult human is 54–64 kg (120–140 lbs) for females and 76–83 kg (168–183 lbs) for males. Weight can also vary greatly (e.g. obesity). Unlike most other primates, humans are capable of fully bipedal locomotion, thus leaving their arms available for manipulating objects using their hands, aided especially by opposable thumbs.

Although humans appear hairless compared to other primates, with notable hair growth occurring chiefly on the top of the head, underarms and pubic area, the average human has more hair follicles on his or her body than the average chimpanzee. The main distinction is that human hairs are shorter, finer, and less heavily pigmented than the average chimpanzee's, thus making them harder to see.

The hue of human skin and hair is determined by the presence of pigments called melanins. Human skin hues can range from very dark brown to very pale pink. Human hair ranges from white to brown to red to most commonly black. This depends on the amount of melanin (an effective sun blocking pigment) in the skin and hair, with hair melanin concentrations in hair fading with increased age, leading to grey or even white hair. Most researchers believe that skin darkening was an adaptation that evolved as a protection against ultraviolet solar radiation. However, more recently it has been argued that particular skin colors are an adaptation to balance folate, which is destroyed by ultraviolet radiation, and vitamin D, which requires sunlight to form. The skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is geographically stratified, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation. Human skin also has a capacity to darken (sun tanning) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Humans tend to be physically weaker than other similarly sized primates, with young, conditioned male humans having been shown to be unable to match the strength of female orangutans which are at least three times stronger.

The construction of the human pelvis differs from other primates, as do the toes. As a result, humans are slower for short distances than most other animals, but are among the best long-distance runners in the animal kingdom. Humans' thinner body hair and more productive sweat glands also helps avoid heat exhaustion while running for long distances. For this reason persistence hunting was most likely a very successful strategy for early humans – in this method, prey is chased until it is literally exhausted. This may have also helped the early human Cro-Magnon population out-compete the Neanderthal population for food. The otherwise physically stronger Neanderthal would have much greater difficulty hunting in this way, and much more likely hunted larger game in close quarters. A trade-off for these advantages of the modern human pelvis is that childbirth is more difficult and dangerous.

The construction of modern human shoulders enable throwing weapons, which also were much more difficult or even impossible for Neanderthal competitors to use effectively.

+ Constituents of the human body in a person weighing 60 kg<
Constituent !! Weight !! Percentage of atoms
	38.8 kg	25.5 %
style="text-align:left">Carbon	10.9 kg
style="text-align:left"	Hydrogen	6.0 kg
style="text-align:left"	Nitrogen	1.9 kg
style="text-align:left"	Other	2.4 kg

The dental formula of Humans is the following: . Humans have proportionately shorter palates and much smaller teeth than other primates. They are the only primates to have short, relatively flush canine teeth. Humans have characteristically crowded teeth, with gaps from lost teeth usually closing up quickly in young specimens. Humans are gradually losing their wisdom teeth, with some individuals having them congenitally absent.

Physiology

Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems. Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal physiology, and animal experimentation has provided much of the foundation of physiological knowledge. Anatomy and physiology are closely related fields of study: anatomy, the study of form, and physiology, the study of function, are intrinsically tied and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.

Genetics

Humans are a eukaryotic species. Each diploid cell has two sets of 23 chromosomes, each set received from one parent. There are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. By present estimates, humans have approximately 20,000–25,000 genes. Like other mammals, humans have an XY sex-determination system, so that females have the sex chromosomes XX and males have XY. The X chromosome carries many genes not on the Y chromosome, which means that recessive diseases associated with X-linked genes, such as haemophilia, affect men more often than women.

Life cycle

The human life cycle is similar to that of other placental mammals. The zygote divides inside the female's uterus to become an embryo, which over a period of thirty-eight weeks (9 months) of gestation becomes a fetus. After this span of time, the fully grown fetus is birthed from the woman's body and breathes independently as an infant for the first time. At this point, most modern cultures recognize the baby as a person entitled to the full protection of the law, though some jurisdictions extend various levels of personhood earlier to human fetuses while they remain in the uterus.

Compared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous. Painful labors lasting twenty-four hours or more are not uncommon and sometimes leads to the death of the mother, or the child. This is because of both the relatively large fetal head circumference (for housing the brain) and the mother's relatively narrow pelvis (a trait required for successful bipedalism, by way of natural selection). The chances of a successful labor increased significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the advent of new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and natural childbirth remain hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with maternal death rates approximately 100 times more common than in developed countries.

In developed countries, infants are typically 3–4 kg (6–9 pounds) in weight and 50–60 cm (20–24 inches) in height at birth. However, low birth weight is common in developing countries, and contributes to the high levels of infant mortality in these regions. Helpless at birth, humans continue to grow for some years, typically reaching sexual maturity at 12 to 15 years of age. Females continue to develop physically until around the age of 18, whereas male development continues until around age 21. The human life span can be split into a number of stages: infancy, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, adulthood and old age. The lengths of these stages, however, have varied across cultures and time periods. Compared to other primates, humans experience an unusually rapid growth spurt during adolescence, where the body grows 25% in size. Chimpanzees, for example, grow only 14%, with no pronounced spurt. The presence of the growth spurt is probably necessary to keep children physically small until they are psychologically mature. Humans are one of the few species in which females undergo menopause. It has been proposed that menopause increases a woman's overall reproductive success by allowing her to invest more time and resources in her existing offspring and/or their children (the grandmother hypothesis), rather than by continuing to bear children into old age.

There are significant differences in life expectancy around the world. The developed world is generally aging, with the median age around 40 years. In the developing world the median age is between 15 and 20 years. Life expectancy at birth in Hong Kong is 84.8 years for a female and 78.9 for a male, while in Swaziland, primarily because of AIDS, it is 31.3 years for both sexes. While one in five Europeans is 60 years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60 years of age or older. The number of centenarians (humans of age 100 years or older) in the world was estimated by the United Nations at 210,000 in 2002. At least one person, Jeanne Calment, is known to have reached the age of 122 years; higher ages have been claimed but they are not well substantiated. Worldwide, there are 81 men aged 60 or older for every 100 women of that age group, and among the oldest, there are 53 men for every 100 women.

Race and ethnicity

Humans often categorize themselves in terms of race or ethnicity, sometimes on the basis of differences in appearance. Human racial categories have been based on both ancestry and visible traits, especially facial features, skull shape, skin color and hair texture. Most current genetic and archaeological evidence supports a recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa. Current genetic studies have demonstrated that humans on the African continent are most genetically diverse. However, compared to the other great apes, human gene sequences are remarkably homogeneous. The predominance of genetic variation occurs ''within'' racial groups, with only 5 to 15% of total variation occurring ''between'' groups. Thus the scientific concept of variation in the human genome is largely incongruent with the cultural concept of ethnicity or race. Ethnic groups are defined by linguistic, cultural, ancestral, national or regional ties. Self-identification with an ethnic group is usually based on kinship and descent. Race and ethnicity are among major factors in social identity giving rise to various forms of identity politics, e.g., racism.

There is no scientific consensus of a list of the human races, and few anthropologists endorse the notion of human "race". For example, a color terminology for race includes the following in a classification of human races: Black (e.g. Sub-Saharan Africa), Red (e.g. Native Americans), Yellow (e.g. East Asians), White (e.g. Europeans) and Brown (e.g. South Asians).

Referring to natural species, in general, the term "race" is obsolete, particularly if a species is uniformly distributed on a territory. In its modern scientific connotation, the term is not applicable to a species as genetically homogeneous as the human one, as stated in the declaration on race (UNESCO 1950). Genetic studies have substantiated the absence of clear biological borders, thus the term "race" is rarely used in scientific terminology, both in biological anthropology and in human genetics. What in the past had been defined as "races"—e.g., whites, blacks, or Asians—are now defined as "ethnic groups" or "populations", in correlation with the field (sociology, anthropology, genetics) in which they are considered.

Diet

Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material. Varying with available food sources in regions of habitation, and also varying with cultural and religious norms, human groups have adopted a range of diets, from purely vegetarian to primarily carnivorous. In some cases, dietary restrictions in humans can lead to deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources. The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of food science.

Until the development of agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago, ''Homo sapiens'' employed a hunter-gatherer method as their sole means of food collection. This involved combining stationary food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms, insect larvae and aquatic molluscs) with wild game, which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. It has been proposed that members of ''H. sapiens'' have used fire to prepare and cook food since the time of their divergence from ''Homo rhodesiensis'' (which itself had previously speciated from ''Homo erectus''). Around ten thousand years ago, humans developed agriculture, which substantially altered their diet. This change in diet may also have altered human biology; with the spread of dairy farming providing a new and rich source of food, leading to the evolution of the ability to digest lactose in some adults. Agriculture led to increased populations, the development of cities, and because of increased population density, the wider spread of infectious diseases. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared, has varied widely by time, location, and culture.

In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. About 36 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to hunger. Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease. However global food distribution is not even, and obesity among some human populations has increased rapidly, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed, and a few developing countries. Worldwide over one billion people are obese, while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an "obesity epidemic". Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by a combination of an energy-dense high fat diet and insufficient exercise.

Sleep

Humans are generally diurnal. The average sleep requirement is between seven and nine hours per day for an adult and nine to ten hours per day for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Experiencing less sleep than this is common in modern societies; this sleep deprivation can have negative effects. A sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort.

Psychology

The human brain, the focal point of the central nervous system in humans, controls the peripheral nervous system. In addition to controlling "lower", involuntary, or primarily autonomic activities such as respiration and digestion, it is also the locus of "higher" order functioning such as thought, reasoning, and abstraction. These cognitive processes constitute the mind, and, along with their behavioral consequences, are studied in the field of psychology.

Generally regarded as more capable of these higher order activities, the human brain is believed to be more "intelligent" in general than that of any other known species. While some non-human species are capable of creating structures and using simple tools—mostly through instinct and mimicry—human technology is vastly more complex, and is constantly evolving and improving through time.

Although being vastly more advanced than many species in cognitive abilities, most of these abilities are known in primitive form among other species. Modern anthropology has tended to bear out Darwin's proposition that "the difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind".

Consciousness and thought

Humans are one of only nine species known to pass the mirror test—which tests whether an animal recognizes its reflection as an image of itself—along with all the great apes (gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, bonobos), Bottlenose dolphins, Asian elephants, European Magpies, and Orcas. Most human children will pass the mirror test at 18 months old. However, the usefulness of this test as a true test of consciousness has been disputed, and this may be a matter of degree rather than a sharp divide. Monkeys have been trained to apply abstract rules in tasks.

The human brain perceives the external world through the senses, and each individual human is influenced greatly by his or her experiences, leading to subjective views of existence and the passage of time. Humans are variously said to possess consciousness, self-awareness, and a mind, which correspond roughly to the mental processes of thought. These are said to possess qualities such as self-awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and one's environment. The extent to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world is a matter of debate, as are the definitions and validity of many of the terms used above. The philosopher of cognitive science Daniel Dennett, for example, argues that there is no such thing as a narrative centre called the "mind", but that instead there is simply a collection of sensory inputs and outputs: different kinds of "software" running in parallel. Psychologist B.F. Skinner argued that the mind is an explanatory fiction that diverts attention from environmental causes of behavior, and that what are commonly seen as mental processes may be better conceived of as forms of covert verbal behavior.

Humans study the more physical aspects of the mind and brain, and by extension of the nervous system, in the field of neurology, the more behavioral in the field of psychology, and a sometimes loosely defined area between in the field of psychiatry, which treats mental illness and behavioral disorders. Psychology does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system, and can be framed purely in terms of phenomenological or information processing theories of the mind. Increasingly, however, an understanding of brain functions is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.

The nature of thought is central to psychology and related fields. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes' underlying behavior. It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched areas as well. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology. Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development.

Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is experience itself, and access consciousness, which is the processing of the things in experience. Phenomenal consciousness is the state of being conscious, such as when they say "I am conscious." Access consciousness is being conscious ''of'' something in relation to abstract concepts, such as when one says "I am conscious of these words." Various forms of access consciousness include awareness, self-awareness, conscience, stream of consciousness, Husserl's phenomenology, and intentionality. The concept of phenomenal consciousness, in modern history, according to some, is closely related to the concept of qualia. Social psychology links sociology with psychology in their shared study of the nature and causes of human social interaction, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. The behavior and mental processes, both human and non-human, can be described through animal cognition, ethology, evolutionary psychology, and comparative psychology as well. Human ecology is an academic discipline that investigates how humans and human societies interact with both their natural environment and the human social environment.

Motivation and emotion

Motivation is the driving force of desire behind all deliberate actions of humans. Motivation is based on emotion—specifically, on the search for satisfaction (positive emotional experiences), and the avoidance of conflict. Positive and negative is defined by the individual brain state, which may be influenced by social norms: a person may be driven to self-injury or violence because his brain is conditioned to create a positive response to these actions. Motivation is important because it is involved in the performance of all learned responses. Within psychology, conflict avoidance and the libido are seen to be primary motivators. Within economics, motivation is often seen to be based on incentives; these may be financial, moral, or coercive. Religions generally posit divine or demonic influences.

Happiness, or the state of being happy, is a human emotional condition. The definition of happiness is a common philosophical topic. Some people might define it as the best condition that a human can have—a condition of mental and physical health. Others define it as freedom from want and distress; consciousness of the good order of things; assurance of one's place in the universe or society.

Emotion has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control, human behavior, though historically many cultures and philosophers have for various reasons discouraged allowing this influence to go unchecked. Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, such as love, admiration, or joy, contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like hate, envy, or sorrow. There is often a distinction made between refined emotions that are socially learned and survival oriented emotions, which are thought to be innate. Human exploration of emotions as separate from other neurological phenomena is worthy of note, particularly in cultures where emotion is considered separate from physiological state. In some cultural medical theories emotion is considered so synonymous with certain forms of physical health that no difference is thought to exist. The Stoics believed excessive emotion was harmful, while some Sufi teachers felt certain extreme emotions could yield a conceptual perfection, what is often translated as ecstasy.

In modern scientific thought, certain refined emotions are considered a complex neural trait innate in a variety of domesticated and non-domesticated mammals. These were commonly developed in reaction to superior survival mechanisms and intelligent interaction with each other and the environment; as such, refined emotion is not in all cases as discrete and separate from natural neural function as was once assumed. However, when humans function in civilized tandem, it has been noted that uninhibited acting on extreme emotion can lead to social disorder and crime.

Society and culture

Human society statistics
World population	/ 1e9 round 1}} billion
	12.7 per km² (4.9 mi²) by total area43.6 per km² (16.8 mi²) by land area
valign="top"
	style="text-align: left;">Mandarin Chinese, English, Spanish, Arabic, Hindi, Bengali, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, German, Javanese, Punjabi, Telugu, Vietnamese, French, Marathi, Turkish, Korean, Tamil, Italian, Urdu, Indonesian
Gross domestic product

Humans are social beings. In comparisons with animalia, humans are regarded like the communication for self-expression, the exchange of ideas, and [[social organization">organization, and as such have created complex social structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups. Human groups range from families to nations. Social interactions between humans have established an extremely wide variety of values, social norms, and rituals, which together form the basis of human society.

Culture is defined here as patterns of complex symbolic behavior, i.e. all behavior that is not innate but which has to be learned through social interaction with others; such as the use of distinctive material and symbolic systems, including language, ritual, social organization, traditions, beliefs and technology.

Sexuality and love

Human sexuality, besides ensuring biological reproduction, has important social functions: it creates physical intimacy, bonds, and hierarchies among individuals; and in a hedonistic sense to the enjoyment of activity involving sexual gratification. Sexual desire, or libido, is experienced as a bodily urge, often accompanied by strong emotions such as love, ecstasy and jealousy. The extreme importance of sexuality in the human species can be seen in a number of physical features, among them hidden ovulation, the evolution of external scrotum and penis suggesting sperm competition, the absence of an os penis, permanent secondary sexual characteristics, the forming of pair bonds based on sexual attraction as a common social structure and sexual ability in females outside of ovulation. These adaptations indicate that the importance of sexuality in humans is on a par with that found in the Bonobo, and that the complex human sexual behaviour has a long evolutionary history.

Human choices in acting on sexuality are commonly influenced by cultural norms, which vary widely. Restrictions are often determined by religious beliefs or social customs. The pioneering researcher Sigmund Freud believed that humans are born polymorphously perverse, which means that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. According to Freud, humans then pass through five stages of psychosexual development (and can fixate on any stage because of various traumas during the process). For Alfred Kinsey, another influential sex researcher, people can fall anywhere along a continuous scale of sexual orientation (with only small minorities fully heterosexual or homosexual). Recent studies of neurology and genetics suggest people may be born predisposed to various sexual tendencies.

Gender roles

The sexual division of humans into male and female has been marked culturally by a corresponding division of roles, norms, practices, dress, behavior, rights, duties, privileges, status, and power. Cultural differences by gender have often been believed to have arisen naturally out of a division of reproductive labor; the biological fact that women give birth led to their further cultural responsibility for nurturing and caring for children and households. Gender roles have varied historically, and challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies. As a whole, patriarchal societies (i.e., in which men hold the greater degree of economic and political power) have been predominant, and matriarchal or egalitarian societies less common.

Society, government, and politics

Society is the system of organizations and institutions arising from interaction between humans. A state is an organized political community occupying a definite territory, having an organized government, and possessing internal and external sovereignty. Recognition of the state's claim to independence by other states, enabling it to enter into international agreements, is often important to the establishment of its statehood. The "state" can also be defined in terms of domestic conditions, specifically, as conceptualized by Max Weber, "a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the 'legitimate' use of physical force within a given territory."

Government can be defined as the political means of creating and enforcing laws; typically via a bureaucratic hierarchy. Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups; this process often involves conflict as well as compromise. Although the term is generally applied to behavior within governments, politics is also observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. Many different political systems exist, as do many different ways of understanding them, and many definitions overlap. Examples of governments include monarchy, Communist state, military dictatorship, theocracy, and liberal democracy, the last of which is considered dominant today. All of these issues have a direct relationship with economics.

Trade and economics

Trade is the voluntary exchange of goods and services, and is a form of economics. A mechanism that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and services. Modern traders instead generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money (and later credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Because of specialization and division of labor, most people concentrate on a small aspect of manufacturing or service, trading their labour for products. Trade exists between regions because different regions have an absolute or comparative advantage in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits of mass production.

Economics is a social science which studies the production, distribution, trade, and consumption of goods and services. Economics focuses on measurable variables, and is broadly divided into two main branches: microeconomics, which deals with individual agents, such as households and businesses, and macroeconomics, which considers the economy as a whole, in which case it considers aggregate supply and demand for money, capital and commodities. Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are resource allocation, production, distribution, trade, and competition. Economic logic is increasingly applied to any problem that involves choice under scarcity or determining economic value.

War

War is a state of widespread conflict between states or other large groups of humans, which is characterized by the use of lethal violence between combatants and/or upon civilians. (Humans also engage in lesser conflicts, such as brawls, riots, revolts, and melees. A revolution may or may not involve warfare.) It is estimated that during the 20th century between 167 and 188 million humans died as a result of war. A common perception of war is a series of military campaigns between at least two opposing sides involving a dispute over sovereignty, territory, resources, religion, or other issues. A war between internal elements of a state is a civil war.

There have been a wide variety of rapidly advancing tactics throughout the history of war, ranging from conventional war to asymmetric warfare to total war and unconventional warfare. Techniques include hand to hand combat, the use of ranged weapons, Naval warfare, and, more recently, air support. Military intelligence has often played a key role in determining victory and defeat. Propaganda, which often includes information, slanted opinion and disinformation, plays a key role in maintaining unity within a warring group, and/or sowing discord among opponents. In modern warfare, soldiers and combat vehicles are used to control the land, warships the sea, and aircraft the sky. These fields have also overlapped in the forms of marines, paratroopers, naval aircraft carriers, and surface-to-air missiles, among others. Satellites in low Earth orbit have made outer space a factor in warfare as well as it is used for detailed intelligence gathering, however no known aggressive actions have been taken from space.

Material culture and technology

Stone tools were used by proto-humans at least 2.5 million years ago. The controlled use of fire began around 1.5 million years ago. Since then, humans have made major advances, developing complex technology to create tools to aid their lives and allowing for other advancements in culture. Major leaps in technology include the discovery of agriculture – what is known as the Neolithic Revolution; and the invention of automated machines in the Industrial Revolution.

Archaeology attempts to tell the story of past or lost cultures in part by close examination of the artifacts they produced. Early humans left stone tools, pottery, and jewelry that are particular to various regions and times.

Language

The capacity humans have to transfer concepts, ideas and notions through speech and writing is unrivaled in known species. Unlike the call systems of other primates that are closed, human language is far more open, and gains variety in different situations. The human language has the quality of displacement, using words to represent things and happenings that are not presently or locally occurring, but elsewhere or at a different time. In this way data networks are important to the continuing development of language. The faculty of speech is a defining feature of humanity, possibly predating phylogenetic separation of the modern population. Language is central to the communication between humans, as well as being central to the sense of identity that unites nations, cultures and ethnic groups. The invention of writing systems at least 5,000 years ago allowed the preservation of language on material objects, and was a major step in cultural evolution. The science of linguistics describes the structure of language and the relationship between languages. There are approximately 6,000 different languages currently in use, including sign languages, and many thousands more that are considered extinct.

Spirituality and religion

Religion is generally defined as a belief system concerning the supernatural, sacred or divine, and practices, values, institutions and rituals associated with such belief. Some religions also have a moral code. The evolution and the history of the first religions have recently become areas of active scientific investigation. However, in the course of its development, religion has taken on many forms that vary by culture and individual perspective. Some of the chief questions and issues religions are concerned with include life after death (commonly involving belief in an afterlife), the origin of life, the nature of the universe (religious cosmology) and its ultimate fate (eschatology), and what is moral or immoral. A common source in religions for answers to these questions are beliefs in transcendent divine beings such as deities or a singular God, although not all religions are theistic—many are nontheistic or ambiguous on the topic, particularly among the Eastern religions. Spirituality, belief or involvement in matters of the soul or spirit, is one of the many different approaches humans take in trying to answer fundamental questions about humankind's place in the universe, the meaning of life, and the ideal way to live one's life. Though these topics have also been addressed by philosophy, and to some extent by science, spirituality is unique in that it focuses on mystical or supernatural concepts such as karma and God.

Although the exact level of religiosity can be hard to measure, a majority of humans professes some variety of religious or spiritual belief, although some are irreligious: that is lacking or rejecting belief in the supernatural or spiritual. Other humans have no religious beliefs and are atheists, scientific skeptics, agnostics or simply non-religious. Humanism is a philosophy which seeks to include all of humanity and all issues common to humans; it is usually non-religious. Additionally, although most religions and spiritual beliefs are clearly distinct from science on both a philosophical and methodological level, the two are not generally considered mutually exclusive; a majority of humans holds a mix of both scientific and religious views. The distinction between philosophy and religion, on the other hand, is at times less clear, and the two are linked in such fields as the philosophy of religion and theology.

Philosophy and self-reflection

Philosophy is a discipline or field of study involving the investigation, analysis, and development of ideas at a general, abstract, or fundamental level. It is the discipline searching for a general understanding of reality, reasoning and values. Major fields of philosophy include logic, metaphysics, epistemology, philosophy of mind, and axiology (which includes ethics and aesthetics). Philosophy covers a very wide range of approaches, and is used to refer to a worldview, to a perspective on an issue, or to the positions argued for by a particular philosopher or school of philosophy.

Art, music, and literature

Artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind, from early pre-historic art to contemporary art. Art is one of the most unusual aspects of human behaviour and a key distinguishing feature of humans from other species.

As a form of cultural expression by humans, art may be defined by the pursuit of diversity and the usage of narratives of liberation and exploration (i.e. art history, art criticism, and art theory) to mediate its boundaries. This distinction may be applied to objects or performances, current or historical, and its prestige extends to those who made, found, exhibit, or own them. In the modern use of the word, art is commonly understood to be the process or result of making material works that, from concept to creation, adhere to the "creative impulse" of human beings. Art is distinguished from other works by being in large part unprompted by necessity, by biological drive, or by any undisciplined pursuit of recreation.

Music is a natural intuitive phenomenon based on the three distinct and interrelated organization structures of rhythm, harmony, and melody. Listening to music is perhaps the most common and universal form of entertainment for humans, while learning and understanding it are popular disciplines. There are a wide variety of music genres and ethnic musics. Literature, the body of written—and possibly oral—works, especially creative ones, includes prose, poetry and drama, both fiction and non-fiction. Literature includes such genres as epic, legend, myth, ballad, and folklore.

Destruction of the Environment

Humans are the only species known to actively engage in the destruction of their own environment and that of other species.

References

Freeman, Scott; Jon C. Herron, ''Evolutionary Analysis'' (4th ed.) Pearson Education, Inc., 2007. ISBN 0-13-227584-8 pages 757–761.

External links

MNSU

Archaeology Info

Chororapithecus abyssinicus Possible human-orangutan split 20 million years ago. (Aug 26 2007)

Homo sapiens - The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program

Human Category:Megafauna Category:Megafauna of Australia Category:Megafauna of South America Category:Megafauna of Africa Category:Megafauna of Eurasia Category:Megafauna of North America Category:Tool-using species Category:Cosmopolitan species Category:Animals described in 1758

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name	Joe Rogan
birth name	Joseph Rogan
birth date	August 11, 1967
birth place	Newark, New Jersey, U.S.
medium	Stand-up, television, podcast, books
nationality	American
active	1988–present
genre	Satire/political satire, blue comedy, observational comedy
subject	Recreational drug use, self-deprecation, race relations, marriage, everyday life, parenting, pseudoscience, current events, politics, religion
spouse	Jessica Rogan (2009–present; 2 children)
notable work	Joe Garrelli in NewsRadioCo-Host of The Man ShowHost of Fear FactorCommentator for the UFCAuthor of the Book Space Monkey }}

style	10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Judo, Kickboxing, Muay Thai, Taekwondo
team	10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu
rank	''brown belt in 10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu'' ''brown belt in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu'' ''green belt in Judo'' ''black belt in Taekwondo''
kickbox win	2
kickbox loss	1
kickbox draw	0
kickbox nc	}}

Joseph "Joe" Rogan (born August 11, 1967) is an American comedian, video blogger, actor, writer, martial artist, activist and color commentator for the Ultimate Fighting Championship.

Career

Acting

In 1994, Rogan co-starred on the Fox comedy Hardball as Frank Valente, the young, ego-centric star player on a fictional professional baseball team. The show was cancelled after nine episodes.

From 1995-1999, Rogan co-starred on the critically acclaimed comedy NewsRadio. He portrayed Joe Garrelli, the electrician at WNYX, a news radio station in New York City.

In 2002, he appeared on the episode "A Beautiful Mind" of Just Shoot Me as Chris, Maya Gallo's boyfriend.

In 2010 Joe Rogan released his stand up DVD Talking Monkeys In Space. It was 68 minutes of unedited and uncensored material.

In 2011, Rogan played his first major character in a movie in the Kevin James movie ''Zookeeper''.

He is slated to play himself in an upcoming action-comedy starring Kevin James called Here Comes the Boom, set to be released in the summer of 2012.

Martial arts

During high school, Rogan was a practitioner of Taekwondo and gained a black belt at age 15. He went on to become a four-time state champion in Massachusetts, and a U.S. Open Taekwondo champion. His record as a kickboxer is 2-1.

In 1996, Rogan began training in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu under Carlson Gracie at his school in Hollywood, California. After Gracie relocated to Chicago, Rogan later began training under Jean Jacques Machado, (a cousin of the Gracie family), eventually earning his brown belt under Machado. In addition, Rogan holds a brown belt in 10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu under Eddie Bravo.

Commentating

Rogan began working for the UFC in 1997, making his debut interviewing fighters at UFC 12: Judgement Day in Dothan, Alabama, before eventually becoming a color commentator for the promotion.

Hosting

Rogan worked on the TV series ''Fear Factor'', as a host of the United States version of the show. He hosted from June 11, 2001 through September 12, 2006 before the show was canceled by NBC. Rogan will return as the host of ''Fear Factor'' in an upcoming rebooted edition of the show, which will air fall 2011 on NBC.

In December 2009, Rogan began hosting a regular podcast with concurrent live Ustream availability. Frequently co-hosted by his friend and the show's producer Brian "Redban" Reichle, the podcast features an array of guests from the pursuits of comedy, acting and Mixed Martial Arts. Now known as ''The Joe Rogan Experience'', the show is regularly found in the Apple iTunes top 10 most downloaded comedy, and was named one of iTunes "Best of 2010" audio podcasts in its first year. He refers to himself as a werewolf commonly on the podcast, admittedly after the Twilight series.

Personal life

Rogan was born in Newark, New Jersey. His paternal grandfather was Irish, and the remainder of his ancestry is Italian.

Family

On May 21, 2008, Rogan announced on the Kevin and Bean radio show in Los Angeles that his girlfriend Jessica had a baby girl, and confirmed the news on his fan forum. The couple married in 2009. On episode 22 of ''The Joe Rogan Experience'' (recorded May 25, 2010), Rogan announced that "baby Rogan number two was just born the other day".

Religion

Although raised Roman Catholic, Rogan stated in September 2010, during a guest appearance on the Alex Jones radio show, that he does not follow any organized religions because he feels it is all the work of man. Rogan also said that he is not completely opposed to the concept of a "higher power" such as a God, however views the concept of God as part of nature that exists in everything.

Psychedelics

One of the recurring themes in his stand-up comedy and life is the use and support of cannabis, psilocybin mushrooms, and DMT. Rogan supports the medical and recreational use of cannabis. He has also starred in the marijuana documentary ''The Union: The Business Behind Getting High''. He has an isolation tank in his basement. Rogan was featured in the 2010 History Channel documentary, ''Marijuana: A Chronic History'', as an advocate of legalized medical use of marijuana. He is also the presenter of the 2010 documentary, ''DMT: The Spirit Molecule'', released in October 2010.

Accusations against Carlos Mencia

On February 10, 2007, Rogan confronted comedian Carlos Mencia on stage at the Comedy Store on Sunset, accusing him of plagiarism. Rogan posted a video of the altercation with audio and video clips from other comedians, including George Lopez, Reverend Bob Levy, Bobby Lee and Ari Shaffir, among others.

Comedy recordings

''I'm Gonna Be Dead Someday'' (CD) (August 22, 2000)

''Live from the Belly of the Beast'' (DVD) (May 4–5, 2001)

''Joe Rogan: Live'' (DVD) (September 1, 2006)

''Shiny Happy Jihad'' (CD) (April 10, 2007)

''Talking Monkeys In Space'' (CD & DVD) (2010) Comedy Central Records

Awards and Accomplishments

Wrestling Observer Newsletter Awards

* Best Television Announcer (2010)

See also

List of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu practitioners

References

External links

Joe Rogan on Youtube

''Fear Factor''

Interview from August 2008

Joe Rogan on his UFC career

Category:1967 births Category:Living people Category:Actors from New Jersey Category:American cannabis activists Category:American color commentators Category:American comedians Category:American game show hosts Category:American social commentators Category:American stand-up comedians Category:American television actors Category:Former Roman Catholics Category:American agnostics Category:Mixed martial arts broadcasters Category:People from Essex County, New Jersey Category:Psychedelic drug advocates Category:Religious skeptics Category:American practitioners of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Category:American judoka Category:American kickboxers Category:American Muay Thai practitioners Category:American taekwondo practitioners Category:Mixed martial arts people Category:Boston University alumni

cs:Joe Rogan es:Joe Rogan is:Joe Rogan nl:Joe Rogan simple:Joe Rogan fi:Joe Rogan sv:Joe Rogan tr:Joe Rogan

background	#013366
name	Mother Teresa
religion	Catholic
order	Sisters of Loreto (1928–1950)Missionaries of Charity (1950–1997)
title	Superior General
period	1950–1997
successor	Nirmala Joshi
birth name	Agnes Gonxhe Bojaxhiu
birth date	August 26, 1910
birth place	Üsküb, Vilayet of Kosovo, Ottoman Empire (today's Skopje)
ethnicity	Albanian
nationality	Indian
ethnicity	Albanian
death date	September 05, 1997
death place	Calcutta, India 150pxSignature of Mother Teresa }}

Mother Teresa (26 August 1910 5 September 1997), born Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu (pronounced ), was a Catholic nun of Albanian ethnicity and Indian citizenship, who founded the Missionaries of Charity in Calcutta, India in 1950. For over 45 years she ministered in her own way to the poor, sick, orphaned, and dying, while guiding the Missionaries of Charity's expansion, first throughout India and then in other countries. Following her death she was beatified by Pope John Paul II and given the title Blessed Teresa of Calcutta.

In the 1970s, she became well-known internationally for her controversial work considered humanitarian and apparent advocacy for the rights of the poor and helpless. Malcolm Muggeridge documented this favourably and wrote a book ''Something Beautiful for God'', Christopher Hitchens claims Muggeridge was “credulous” and even mistook an innovative photographic film for a divine miracle. Mother Teresa's Missionaries of Charity continued to grow during her life-time, and at the time of her death, they had 610 missions in 123 countries, including hospices and homes for people with HIV/AIDS, leprosy and tuberculosis, soup kitchens, children's and family counselling programs, orphanages, and schools. Governments, charity organisations and prominent individuals have been inspired by her work. She received numerous awards, including a number from the Indian Government, one of which was the Bharat Ratna (1980), as well as international awards, such as the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979.

Mother Teresa has not been without her critics, however, including prominent atheist Christopher Hitchens who believes her reputation is misguided and due to people failing to examine what she actually did. Other critics are cultural critic Michael Parenti, Indian-English physician Aroup Chatterjee and the World Hindu Council (Vishva Hindu Parishad). They accuse her of proselytizing, failing to provide accounts which Hitchins could have audited and which would have allowed donors to investigate how their money was used, allowing her hospice to be primitive and run down despite obtaining vast sums of donated money which could be used to build, for example a new teaching hospital in Calcutta. Mother Teresa is further accused of strongly opposing contraception and abortion, believing in poverty's spiritual goodness and alleged "secret baptisms of the dying" though the baptism may not have valid according to Roman Catholic teachings.

In 2010 on the 100th anniversary of her birth, she was honoured around the world, and her work praised by Indian President Pratibha Patil though some people are unsure if she did more good or more harm.

Early life

Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu (''gonxha'' meaning "rosebud" or "little flower" in Albanian) was born on 26 August 1910, in Üsküb, Ottoman Empire (now Skopje, capital of the Republic of Macedonia). Although she was born on 26 August, she considered 27 August, the day she was baptized, to be her "true birthday". She was the youngest of the children of a family from Shkodër, Albania, born to Nikollë and Drana Bojaxhiu. Her father, who was involved in Albanian politics, died in 1919 when she was eight years old. After her father's death, her mother raised her as a Roman Catholic. Her father, Nikollë Bojaxhiu (his name means 'painter') was of Kosovar Albanian origin possibly stemming from Prizren, Kosovo while her mother's origin was possibly from a village near Đakovica, Kosovo.

According to a biography by Joan Graff Clucas, in her early years Agnes was fascinated by stories of the lives of missionaries and their service in Bengal, and by age 12 was convinced that she should commit herself to a religious life. Her final resolution was taken on August 15, 1928, while praying at the shrine of the Black Madonna of Letnice, where she often went on pilgrimage.

She left home at age 18 to join the Sisters of Loreto as a missionary. She never again saw her mother or sister.

Agnes initially went to the Loreto Abbey in Rathfarnham, Ireland to learn English, the language the Sisters of Loreto used to teach school children in India. She arrived in India in 1929, and began her novitiate in Darjeeling, near the Himalayan mountains, where she learnt Bengali and taught at the St. Teresa’s School, a schoolhouse close to her convent. She took her first religious vows as a nun on 24 May 1931. At that time she chose to be named after Thérèse de Lisieux, the patron saint of missionaries, but because one nun in the convent had already chosen that name, Agnes opted for the Spanish spelling ''Teresa''.

She took her solemn vows on 14 May 1937, while serving as a teacher at the Loreto convent school in Entally, eastern Calcutta. Teresa served there for almost twenty years and in 1944 was appointed headmistress.

Although Teresa enjoyed teaching at the school, she was increasingly disturbed by the poverty surrounding her in Calcutta. The Bengal famine of 1943 brought misery and death to the city; and the outbreak of Hindu/Muslim violence in August 1946 plunged the city into despair and horror.

Missionaries of Charity

On 10 September 1946, Teresa experienced what she later described as "the call within the call" while traveling by train to the Loreto convent in Darjeeling from Calcutta for her annual retreat. ''"I was to leave the convent and help the poor while living among them. It was an order. To fail would have been to break the faith."''

She began her missionary work with the poor in 1948, replacing her traditional Loreto habit with a simple white cotton ''sari'' decorated with a blue border. Mother Teresa adopted Indian citizenship, spent a few months in Patna to receive a basic medical training in the ''Holy Family Hospital'' and then ventured out into the slums. Initially she started a school in Motijhil (Calcutta); soon she started tending to the needs of the destitute and starving. In the beginning of 1949 she was joined in her effort by a group of young women and laid the foundations to create a new religious community helping the ''"poorest among the poor"''.

Her efforts quickly caught the attention of Indian officials, including the prime minister, who expressed his appreciation.

Teresa wrote in her diary that her first year was fraught with difficulties. She had no income and had to resort to begging for food and supplies. Teresa experienced doubt, loneliness and the temptation to return to the comfort of convent life during these early months. She wrote in her diary:

Teresa received Vatican permission on 7 October 1950 to start the diocesan congregation that would become the Missionaries of Charity. Its mission was to care for, in her own words, "the hungry, the naked, the homeless, the crippled, the blind, the lepers, all those people who feel unwanted, unloved, uncared for throughout society, people that have become a burden to the society and are shunned by everyone."

It began as a small order with 13 members in Calcutta; today it has more than 4,000 nuns running orphanages, AIDS hospices and charity centers worldwide, and caring for refugees, the blind, disabled, aged, alcoholics, the poor and homeless, and victims of floods, epidemics, and famine.

In 1952 Mother Teresa opened the first Home for the Dying in space made available by the city of Calcutta. With the help of Indian officials she converted an abandoned Hindu temple into the Kalighat Home for the Dying, a free hospice for the poor. She renamed it Kalighat, the Home of the Pure Heart (Nirmal Hriday). Those brought to the home received medical attention and were afforded the opportunity to die with dignity, according to the rituals of their faith; Muslims were read the Quran, Hindus received water from the Ganges, and Catholics received the Last Rites. "A beautiful death," she said, "is for people who lived like animals to die like angels—loved and wanted."

Mother Teresa soon opened a home for those suffering from Hansen's disease, commonly known as leprosy, and called the hospice Shanti Nagar (City of Peace). The Missionaries of Charity also established several leprosy outreach clinics throughout Calcutta, providing medication, bandages and food.

As the Missionaries of Charity took in increasing numbers of lost children, Mother Teresa felt the need to create a home for them. In 1955 she opened the Nirmala Shishu Bhavan, the Children's Home of the Immaculate Heart, as a haven for orphans and homeless youth.

The order soon began to attract both recruits and charitable donations, and by the 1960s had opened hospices, orphanages and leper houses all over India. Mother Teresa then expanded the order throughout the globe. Its first house outside India opened in Venezuela in 1965 with five sisters. Others followed in Rome, Tanzania, and Austria in 1968; during the 1970s the order opened houses and foundations in dozens of countries in Asia, Africa, Europe and the United States.

The Missionaries of Charity Brothers was founded in 1963, and a contemplative branch of the Sisters followed in 1976. Lay Catholics and non-Catholics were enrolled in the Co-Workers of Mother Teresa, the Sick and Suffering Co-Workers, and the Lay Missionaries of Charity. In answer to the requests of many priests, in 1981 Mother Teresa also began the Corpus Christi Movement for Priests, and in 1984 founded with Fr. Joseph Langford the Missionaries of Charity Fathers to combine the vocational aims of the Missionaries of Charity with the resources of the ministerial priesthood. By 2007 the Missionaries of Charity numbered approximately 450 brothers and 5,000 nuns worldwide, operating 600 missions, schools and shelters in 120 countries.

Mother Teresa's philosophy and implementation have faced some criticism. Catholic newspaper editor David Scott wrote that Mother Teresa limited herself to keeping people alive rather than tackling poverty itself.

It is further alleged that she did not even consistently strive to keep people alive and let patients die of curable conditions claiming that they were going to God anyway.

She could have had Munchhausen's Syndrome by Proxy or whatever it is called – the thing where the person (nurse, etc) gives herself a role by making people die or nearly die, so she can then play the ministering angel. The only difference between this evil and that of Mother T is that she never had to take any murderous actions because there was a steady supply of dying people, it being Calcutta.

She has also been criticized for her view on suffering. She felt that suffering would bring people closer to Jesus. Sanal Edamaruku, President of Rationalist International , criticised the failure to give pain killers, writing that in her Homes for the Dying, one could ''“hear the screams of people having maggots tweezered from their open wounds without pain relief. On principle, strong painkillers are even in hard cases not given. According to Mother Teresa's bizarre philosophy, it is ‘the most beautiful gift for a person that he can participate in the sufferings of Christ’.”''

The quality of care offered to terminally ill patients in the Homes for the Dying has been criticised in the medical press. ''The Lancet'' and the ''British Medical Journal'' reported the reuse of hypodermic needles, poor living conditions, including the use of cold baths for all patients, and an approach to illness and suffering that precluded the use of many elements of modern medical care, such as systematic diagnosis. Dr. Robin Fox, editor of ''The Lancet'', described the medical care as "haphazard", as volunteers without medical knowledge had to take decisions about patient care, because of the lack of doctors. He observed that her order did not distinguish between curable and incurable patients, so that people who could otherwise survive would be at risk of dying from infections and lack of treatment.

Colette Livermore, a former Missionary of Charity, describes her reasons for leaving the order in her book ''Hope Endures: Leaving Mother Teresa, Losing Faith, and Searching for Meaning''. Livermore found what she called Mother Teresa's "theology of suffering" to be flawed, despite being a good and courageous person. Though Mother Teresa instructed her followers on the importance of spreading the Gospel through actions rather than theological lessons, Livermore could not reconcile this with some of the practices of the organization. Examples she gives include unnecessarily refusing to help the needy when they approached the nuns at the wrong time according to the prescribed schedule, discouraging nuns from seeking medical training to deal with the illnesses they encountered (with the justification that God empowers the weak and ignorant), and imposition of "unjust" punishments, such as being transferred away from friends. Livermore says that the Missionaries of Charity "infantilized" its nuns by prohibiting the reading of secular books and newspapers, and emphasizing obedience over independent thinking and problem-solving.

International charity

In 1982, at the height of the Siege of Beirut, Mother Teresa rescued 37 children trapped in a front line hospital by brokering a temporary cease-fire between the Israeli army and Palestinian guerrillas. Accompanied by Red Cross workers, she traveled through the war zone to the devastated hospital to evacuate the young patients.

When Eastern Europe experienced increased openness in the late 1980s, she expanded her efforts to Communist countries that had previously rejected the Missionaries of Charity, embarking on dozens of projects. She was undeterred by criticism about her firm stand against abortion and divorce stating, "No matter who says what, you should accept it with a smile and do your own work." She visited the Soviet republic of Armenia following the 1988 Spitak earthquake, and met with Nikolai Ryzhkov, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers.

Mother Teresa traveled to assist and minister to the hungry in Ethiopia, radiation victims at Chernobyl, and earthquake victims in Armenia. In 1991, Mother Teresa returned for the first time to her homeland and opened a Missionaries of Charity Brothers home in Tirana, Albania.

By 1996, she was operating 517 missions in more than 100 countries. Over the years, Mother Teresa's Missionaries of Charity grew from twelve to thousands serving the "poorest of the poor" in 450 centers around the world. The first Missionaries of Charity home in the United States was established in the South Bronx, New York; by 1984 the order operated 19 establishments throughout the country.

The spending of the charity money received has been criticized by some. Christopher Hitchens and the German magazine ''Stern'' have said Mother Teresa did not focus donated money on alleviating poverty or improving the conditions of her hospices, but on opening new convents and increasing missionary work.

Additionally, the sources of some donations accepted have been criticized. Mother Teresa accepted donations from the autocratic and corrupt Duvalier family in Haiti and openly praised them. She also accepted 1.4 million dollars from Charles Keating, involved in the fraud and corruption scheme known as the Keating Five scandal and supported him before and after his arrest. The Deputy District Attorney for Los Angeles, Paul Turley, wrote to Mother Teresa asking her to return the donated money to the people Keating had stolen from, one of whom was "a poor carpenter". The donated money was not accounted for, and Turley did not receive a reply.

Declining health and death

Mother Teresa suffered a heart attack in Rome in 1983, while visiting Pope John Paul II. After a second attack in 1989, she received an artificial pacemaker. In 1991, after a battle with pneumonia while in Mexico, she suffered further heart problems. She offered to resign her position as head of the Missionaries of Charity. But the nuns of the order, in a secret ballot, voted for her to stay. Mother Teresa agreed to continue her work as head of the order.

In April 1996, Mother Teresa fell and broke her collar bone. In August she suffered from malaria and failure of the left heart ventricle. She had heart surgery but it was clear that her health was declining. She was treated at a California hospital, too, and this has led to some criticism. The Archbishop of Calcutta, Henry Sebastian D'Souza, said he ordered a priest to perform an exorcism on Mother Teresa with her permission when she was first hospitalized with cardiac problems because he thought she may be under attack by the devil.

On 13 March 1997, she stepped down from the head of Missionaries of Charity. She died on 5 September 1997.

At the time of her death, Mother Teresa's Missionaries of Charity had over 4,000 sisters, and an associated brotherhood of 300 members, operating 610 missions in 123 countries. These included hospices and homes for people with HIV/AIDS, leprosy and tuberculosis, soup kitchens, children's and family counseling programs, personal helpers, orphanages, and schools. The Missionaries of Charity were also aided by Co-Workers, who numbered over 1 million by the 1990s.

Mother Teresa lay in repose in St Thomas, Kolkata for one week prior to her funeral, in September 1997. She was granted a state funeral by the Indian Government in gratitude for her services to the poor of all religions in India.

Recognition and reception

In India

Mother Teresa had first been recognised by the Indian government more than a third of a century earlier when she was awarded the Padma Shri in 1962 and the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in 1969. She continued to receive major Indian rewards in successive decades including, in 1972, in 1980, India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna.

Her official biography was authored by an Indian civil servant, Navin Chawla, and published in 1992.

Indian views on Mother Teresa were not uniformly favourable. Her critic Aroup Chatterjee, who was born and raised in Calcutta but lived in London, reports that "she was not a significant entity in Calcutta in her lifetime". Chatterjee blames Mother Teresa for promoting a negative image of his home city. Her presence and profile grated in parts of the Indian political world, as she often opposed the Hindu Right. The Bharatiya Janata Party clashed with her over the Christian Dalits, but praised her in death, sending a representative to her funeral. The Vishwa Hindu Parishad, on the other hand, opposed the Government's decision to grant her a state funeral. Its secretary Giriraj Kishore said that "her first duty was to the Church and social service was incidental" and accused her of favouring Christians and conducting "secret baptisms" of the dying, though the baptism may not have valid according to Roman Catholic teachings. But, in its front page tribute, the Indian fortnightly ''Frontline'' dismissed these charges as "patently false" and said that they had "made no impact on the public perception of her work, especially in Calcutta". Although praising her "selfless caring", energy and bravery, the author of the tribute was critical of Mother Teresa's public campaigning against abortion and that she claimed to be non-political when doing so. More recently, the Indian daily ''The Telegraph'' mentioned that "Rome has been asked to investigate if she did anything to alleviate the condition of the poor or just took care of the sick and dying and needed them to further a sentimentally moral cause." On 28 Aug 2010, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of her birth, the Government of India issued a special 5 Rupee coin, being the sum she first arrived in India with. President Pratibha Patil said of Mother Teresa, "Clad in a white sari with a blue border, she and the sisters of Missionaries of Charity became a symbol of hope to many - the aged, the destitute, the unemployed, the diseased, the terminally ill, and those abandoned by their families."

In the rest of the world

In 1962, Mother Teresa received the Philippines-based Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding, given for work in South or East Asia. The citation said that "the Board of Trustees recognizes her merciful cognizance of the abject poor of a foreign land, in whose service she has led a new congregation". By the early 1970s, Mother Teresa had become an international celebrity. Her fame can be in large part attributed to the 1969 documentary ''Something Beautiful for God'', which was filmed by Malcolm Muggeridge and his 1971 book of the same title. Muggeridge was undergoing a spiritual journey of his own at the time. During the filming of the documentary, footage taken in poor lighting conditions, particularly the Home for the Dying, was thought unlikely to be of usable quality by the crew. After returning from India, however, the footage was found to be extremely well lit. Muggeridge claimed this was a miracle of "divine light" from Mother Teresa herself. Others in the crew thought it was due to a new type of ultra-sensitive Kodak film. Muggeridge later converted to Catholicism.

Around this time, the Catholic world began to honor Mother Teresa publicly. In 1971, Paul VI awarded her the first Pope John XXIII Peace Prize, commending her for her work with the poor, display of Christian charity and efforts for peace. She later received the Pacem in Terris Award (1976). Since her death, Mother Teresa has progressed rapidly along the steps towards sainthood, currently having reached the stage of having been beatified.

Mother Teresa was honoured by both governments and civilian organizations. She was appointed an honorary Companion of the Order of Australia in 1982, "for service to the community of Australia and humanity at large". The United Kingdom and the United States each repeatedly granted awards, culminating in the Order of Merit in 1983, and honorary citizenship of the United States received on 16 November 1996. Mother Teresa's Albanian homeland granted her the Golden Honour of the Nation in 1994. Her acceptance of this and another honour granted by the Haitian government proved controversial. Mother Teresa attracted criticism from a number of people for implicitly giving support to the Duvaliers and to corrupt businessmen such as Charles Keating and Robert Maxwell. In Keating's case she wrote to the judge of his trial asking for clemency to be shown.

Universities in both the West and in India granted her honorary degrees. Other civilian awards include the Balzan Prize for promoting humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples (1978), and the Albert Schweitzer International Prize (1975).

In 1979, Mother Teresa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, "for work undertaken in the struggle to overcome poverty and distress, which also constitutes a threat to peace." She refused the conventional ceremonial banquet given to laureates, and asked that the $192,000 funds be given to the poor in India, stating that earthly rewards were important only if they helped her help the world's needy. When Mother Teresa received the prize, she was asked, "What can we do to promote world peace?" She answered "Go home and love your family." Building on this theme in her Nobel Lecture, she said: "Around the world, not only in the poor countries, but I found the poverty of the West so much more difficult to remove. When I pick up a person from the street, hungry, I give him a plate of rice, a piece of bread, I have satisfied. I have removed that hunger. But a person that is shut out, that feels unwanted, unloved, terrified, the person that has been thrown out from society—that poverty is so hurtable [sic] and so much, and I find that very difficult." She also singled out abortion as 'the greatest destroyer of peace in the world'.

Towards the end of her life, Mother Teresa attracted some negative attention in the Western media. The journalist Christopher Hitchens has been one of her most active critics. He was commissioned to co-write and narrate the documentary ''Hell's Angel'' about her for the British Channel 4 after Aroup Chatterjee encouraged the making of such a program, although Chatterjee was unhappy with the "sensationalist approach" of the final product. Hitchens expanded his criticism in a 1995 book, ''The Missionary Position''.

Chatterjee writes that while she was alive Mother Teresa and her official biographers refused to collaborate with his own investigations and that she failed to defend herself against critical coverage in the Western press. He gives as examples a report in ''The Guardian'' in Britain whose "stringent (and quite detailed) attack on conditions in her orphanages ... [include] charges of gross neglect and physical and emotional abuse", and another documentary ''Mother Teresa: Time for Change?'' broadcast in several European countries.

The German magazine ''Stern'' published a critical article on the first anniversary of Mother Teresa's death. This concerned allegations regarding financial matters and the spending of donations. The medical press has also published criticism of her, arising from very different outlooks and priorities on patients' needs. Other critics include prominent marxist, Tariq Ali, a member of the editorial committee of the ''New Left Review'', and the Irish investigative journalist Donal MacIntyre.

Her death was mourned in both secular and religious communities. In tribute, Nawaz Sharif, the Prime Minister of Pakistan said that she was "a rare and unique individual who lived long for higher purposes. Her life-long devotion to the care of the poor, the sick, and the disadvantaged was one of the highest examples of service to our humanity." The former U.N. Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar said: "She is the United Nations. She is peace in the world." During her lifetime, Mother Teresa was named 18 times in the yearly Gallup's most admired man and woman poll‎ as one of the ten women around the world that Americans admired most, finishing first several times in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1999, a poll of Americans ranked her first in Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century. In that survey, she out-polled all other volunteered answers by a wide margin, and was in first place in all major demographic categories except the very young.

Spiritual life

Analyzing her deeds and achievements, John Paul II asked: "Where did Mother Teresa find the strength and perseverance to place herself completely at the service of others? She found it in prayer and in the silent contemplation of Jesus Christ, his Holy Face, his Sacred Heart." Privately, Mother Teresa experienced doubts and struggles over her religious beliefs which lasted nearly fifty years until the end of her life, during which "she felt no presence of God whatsoever", "neither in her heart or in the eucharist" as put by her postulator Rev. Brian Kolodiejchuk. Mother Teresa expressed grave doubts about God's existence and pain over her lack of faith: }}

With reference to the above words, the Rev. Brian Kolodiejchuk, her postulator (the official responsible for gathering the evidence for her sanctification) indicated there was a risk that some might misinterpret her meaning, but her faith that God was working through her remained undiminished, and that while she pined for the lost sentiment of closeness with God, she did not question his existence. Many other saints had similar experiences of spiritual dryness, or what Catholics believe to be spiritual tests ("passive purifications"), such as Mother Teresa's namesake, St. Therese of Lisieux, who called it a "night of nothingness." Contrary to the mistaken belief by some that the doubts she expressed would be an impediment to canonization, just the opposite is true; it is very consistent with the experience of canonized mystics.

Mother Teresa described, after ten years of doubt, a short period of renewed faith. At the time of the death of Pope Pius XII in the fall of 1958, praying for him at a requiem mass, she said she had been relieved of "the long darkness: that strange suffering." However, five weeks later, she described returning to her difficulties in believing.

Mother Teresa wrote many letters to her confessors and superiors over a 66-year period. She had asked that her letters be destroyed, concerned that "people will think more of me—less of Jesus." However, despite this request, the correspondences have been compiled in ''Mother Teresa: Come Be My Light'' (Doubleday). In one publicly released letter to a spiritual confidant, the Rev. Michael van der Peet, she wrote, "Jesus has a very special love for you. [But] as for me, the silence and the emptiness is so great, that I look and do not see,—Listen and do not hear—the tongue moves [in prayer] but does not speak ... I want you to pray for me—that I let Him have [a] free hand."

Many news outlets have referred to Mother Teresa's writings as an indication of a "crisis of faith." Some critics of Mother Teresa, such as Christopher Hitchens, view her writings as evidence that her public image was created primarily for publicity despite her personal beliefs and actions. Hitchens writes, "So, which is the more striking: that the faithful should bravely confront the fact that one of their heroines all but lost her own faith, or that the Church should have gone on deploying, as an icon of favorable publicity, a confused old lady who it knew had for all practical purposes ceased to believe?" However, others such as Brian Kolodiejchuk, ''Come Be My Light's'' editor, draw comparisons to the 16th century mystic St. John of the Cross, who coined the term the "dark night of the soul" to describe a particular stage in the growth of some spiritual masters. The Vatican has indicated that the letters would not affect her path to sainthood. In fact, the book is edited by the Rev. Brian Kolodiejchuk, her postulator.

In his first encyclical ''Deus Caritas Est'', Benedict XVI mentioned Teresa of Calcutta three times and he also used her life to clarify one of his main points of the encyclical. "In the example of Blessed Teresa of Calcutta we have a clear illustration of the fact that time devoted to God in prayer not only does not detract from effective and loving service to our neighbour but is in fact the inexhaustible source of that service." Mother Teresa specified that "It is only by mental prayer and spiritual reading that we can cultivate the gift of prayer."

Although there was no direct connection between Mother Teresa's order and the Franciscan orders, she was known as a great admirer of St. Francis of Assisi. Accordingly, her influence and life show influences of Franciscan spirituality. The Sisters of Charity recite the peace prayer of St. Francis every morning during thanksgiving after Communion and many of the vows and emphasis of her ministry are similar. St. Francis emphasized poverty, chastity, obedience and submission to Christ. He also devoted much of his own life to service of the poor, especially lepers in the area where he lived.

Miracle and beatification

Name	Blessed Teresa of Calcutta
Feast day	5 September
Venerated in	Roman Catholicism
Beatified date	19 October 2003
Beatified place	St. Peter's Basilica, Rome
Beatified by	Pope John Paul II
Patronage	World Youth Day
Major shrine	Mother House of the Missionaries of Charity, Calcutta, India
Issues	}}

After Mother Teresa's death in 1997, the Holy See began the process of beatification, the third step toward possible canonization. This process requires the documentation of a miracle performed from the intercession of Mother Teresa.

In 2002, the Vatican recognized as a miracle the healing of a tumor in the abdomen of an Indian woman, Monica Besra, after the application of a locket containing Mother Teresa's picture. Besra said that a beam of light emanated from the picture, curing the cancerous tumor. Critics—including some of Besra's medical staff and, initially, Besra's husband—insisted that conventional medical treatment had eradicated the tumor. Dr. Ranjan Mustafi, who told ''The New York Times'' he had treated Besra, said that the cyst was not cancer at all but a cyst caused by tuberculosis. He insisted, "It was not a miracle.... She took medicines for nine months to one year." According to Besra’s husband, “My wife was cured by the doctors and not by any miracle.”

An opposing perspective of the claim is that Besra's medical records contain sonograms, prescriptions, and physicians' notes that could prove whether the cure was a miracle or not. Besra has claimed that Sister Betta of the Missionaries of Charity is holding them. The publication has received a "no comments" statement from Sister Betta. The officials at the Balurghat Hospital where Besra was seeking medical treatment have claimed that they are being pressured by the Catholic order to declare the cure a miracle.

Christopher Hitchens was the only witness called by the Vatican to give evidence against Mother Teresa's beatification and canonization process, because the Vatican had abolished the traditional "devil's advocate" role, which fulfilled a similar purpose. Hitchens has argued that "her intention was not to help people," and he alleged that she lied to donors about the use of their contributions. “It was by talking to her that I discovered, and she assured me, that she wasn't working to alleviate poverty,” says Hitchens. “She was working to expand the number of Catholics. She said, ‘I'm not a social worker. I don't do it for this reason. I do it for Christ. I do it for the church.’”

In the process of examining Teresa's suitability for beatification and canonization, the Roman Curia (the Vatican) pored over a great deal of documentation of published and unpublished criticism of her life and work. Vatican officials say Hitchens's allegations have been investigated by the agency charged with such matters, the Congregation for the Causes of Saints, and they found no obstacle to Mother Teresa's beatification. Because of the attacks she has received, some Catholic writers have called her a sign of contradiction. The beatification of Mother Teresa took place on 19 October 2003, thereby bestowing on her the title "Blessed."

A second miracle is required for her to proceed to canonization.

Legacy and depictions in popular culture

Commemoration

Mother Teresa inspired a variety of commemorations. She has been memorialized through museums, been named patroness of various churches, and had various structures and roads named after her, including Albania's international airport. In 2009 the Mother Teresa Memorial House was opened in her hometown Skopje, in the Republic of Macedonia.

Mother Teresa Women`s University, Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu has been established in 1984 as a public university by Government of Tamil Nadu, India.

Mother Theresa Post Graduate and Research Institute of Health Sciences, Puducherry has been established in 1999 by Government of Puducherry, India.

Various tributes have been published in Indian newspapers and magazines authored by her biographer, Navin Chawla.

Indian Railways will introduce a new train, "Mother Express", named after Mother Teresa, on 26 August 2010 to mark her birth centenary.

Tamil Nadu State government organised centenary celebrations of Mother Teresa on 4 December 2010 in Chennai, headed by Tamil Nadu chief minister M Karunanidhi.

Film and literature

Mother Teresa is the subject of the 1969 documentary film and 1972 book ''Something Beautiful for God'', a 1997 Art Film Festival award winning film starring Geraldine Chaplin called ''Mother Teresa: In the Name of God's Poor'', a 2003 Italian miniseries titled ''Mother Teresa of Calcutta'', (which was re-released in 2007 and received a CAMIE award,) and was portrayed by Megan Fox in a satirical film-within-a-film in the 2007 movie ''How to Lose Friends and Alienate People''.

See also

Christopher Hitchens' critiques of public figures#Mother Teresa

Commemorations of Mother Teresa

List of female Nobel laureates

Memorial House of Mother Teresa

Missionaries of Charity

Mother Teresa: In the Name of God's Poor

Mother Teresa of Calcutta (film)

Notes and references

Notes:

References:

Further reading

Alpion, Gezim. ''Mother Teresa: Saint or Celebrity?''. London: Routledge Press, 2007. ISBN 0-415-39247-0

Benenate, Becky and Joseph Durepos (eds). ''Mother Teresa: No Greater Love'' (Fine Communications, 2000) ISBN 1-56731-401-5

Chatterjee, Aroup. ''Mother Teresa: The Final Verdict'' (Meteor Books, 2003). ISBN 81-88248-00-2, introduction and first three chapters of fourteen (without pictures). Critical examination of Agnes Bojaxhiu's life and work.

Chawla, Navin. ''Mother Teresa''. Rockport, Mass: Element Books, 1996. ISBN 1-85230-911-3

Chawla, Navin. ''Mother Teresa: The Authorized Biography'', Diane Pub Co. (March 1992), ISBN 978-0756755485.

Chawla, Navin. ''The miracle of faith'', article in the Hindu dated 25 August 2007 " The miracle of faith''"

Chawla, Navin. ''Memories of Mother Teresa'', article in the Hindu dated 26 August 2006 " Memories of Mother Teresa''"

Chawla, Navin. Touch the Poor... – article in India Today dated 15 September 1997 " Touch the Poor...''"

Chawla, Navin. ''The path to Sainthood'', article in The Hindu dated Saturday, 4 October 2003 " The path to Sainthood ''"

Chawla, Navin. ''In the shadow of a saint'', article in ''The Indian Express'' dated September, 05, 2007 " In the shadow of a saint ''"

Chawla, Navin. ''Mission Possible'', article in ''India Today'' dated 21 April 2008 "Mission Possible''"

Chawla, Navin. ''Mother Teresa and the joy of giving'', article in ''The Hindu'' dated 26 August 2008 Mother Teresa and the joy of giving''"

Clucas, Joan. ''Mother Teresa''. New York: Chelsea House, 1988. ISBN 1-55546-855-1

Dwivedi, Brijal. ''Mother Teresa: Woman of the Century''

Greene, Meg. ''Mother Teresa: A Biography'', Greenwood Press, 2004. ISBN 0-313-32771-8

Hitchens, Christopher. ''The Missionary Position: Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice''. London: Verso, 1996. ISBN 1-85984-054-X

Le Joly, Edward. ''Mother Teresa of Calcutta''. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1983. ISBN 0-06-065217-9.

Muggeridge, Malcolm. ''Something Beautiful for God.'' ISBN 0-06-066043-0.

Muntaykkal, T.T. ''Blessed Mother Teresa: Her Journey to Your Heart''. ISBN 1-903650-61-5. ISBN 0-7648-1110-X. .

Scott, David. ''A Revolution of Love: The Meaning of Mother Teresa''. Chicago: Loyola Press, 2005. ISBN 0829420312.

Sebba, Anne. ''Mother Teresa: Beyond the Image''. New York: Doubleday, 1997. ISBN 0-385-48952-8.

Slavicek, Louise. ''Mother Teresa''. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2007. ISBN 0791094332.

Spink, Kathryn. ''Mother Teresa: A Complete Authorized Biography''. New York: HarperCollins, 1997. ISBN 0062508253

Teresa, Mother et al., ''Mother Teresa: In My Own Words''. Gramercy Books, 1997. ISBN 0-517-20169-0.

Teresa, Mother & Kolodiejchuk, Brian, ''Mother Teresa: Come Be My Light'', New York: Doubleday, 2007. ISBN 0385520379.

Williams, Paul. '' Mother Teresa''. Indianapolis: Alpha Books, 2002. ISBN 0-02-864278-3.

Wüllenweber, Walter. "Nehmen ist seliger denn geben. Mutter Teresa—wo sind ihre Millionen?" ''Stern'' (illustrated German weekly), 10 September 1998. English translation.

Navin Chawla. ''Mother Teresa: The Authorized Biography''. Diane Pub Co. (March 1992). ISBN 978-0756755485. First published by Sinclair-Stevenson, U.K. (1992), since translated into 14 languages in India and abroad. Indian language editions include Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada. The foreign language editions include French, German, Dutch, Spanish, Italian, Polish, Japanese, and Thai. In both Indian and foreign languages, there have been multiple editions. The bulk of royalty income goes to charity.

Eileen Egan and Kathleen Egan, OSB. ''Prayertimes with Mother Teresa: A New Adventure in Prayer'', Doubleday, 1989. ISBN 978-0385-26231-6.

Brian Kolodiejchuk (ed.). ''Mother Teresa: Come be My Light'', Doubleday, 2007, ISBN 978-0385-52037-9.

Raghu Rai and Navin Chawla. ''Faith and Compassion: The Life and Work of Mother Teresa''. Element Books Ltd. (December 1996). ISBN 978-1852309121. Translated also into Dutch and Spanish.

Vimla Mehta & Veerendra Raj Mehta, ‘’Mother Teresa Inspiring Incidents’’, Publications division, Ministry of I&B;, Govt. of India, 2004, ISBN 81-230-1167-9.

External links

Mother Teresa of Calcutta Center, India – Official Site

Missionaries of Charity Brothers (Active Branch)

Mother Teresa and her patron saint, St. Therese of Lisieux

Mother Teresa Memorial Page

Mother Teresa Women`s University, Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu, India – Official site

Nobel Laureate Biography (Nobel Foundation)

Complete Mother Teresa Quotations

Mother Teresa: Angel of Mercy (CNN)

The TIME 100: The Most Important People of the Century – Mother Teresa

Missionaries of Charity Fathers (MC Fathers / MC Priests) – Official Website: Biography of Mother Teresa

Mother Teresa's Crisis of Faith (TIME.com)

Speech at National Prayer Breakfast, Washington, D.C. 3 February 1994

Peggy Noonan, "Still, Small Voice," ''Crisis'', 1 February 1998 (account of the National Prayer Breakfast speech)

Missionaries of Charity Active and Contemplative Sisters with U.S. contact information (CMSWR member page)

India to give Mother Teresa state funeral, ''CNN''

"Mother Teresa of Calcutta" Website of Sally Warner

"Mother Teresa, John Paul II, and the Fast-Track Saints" by Michael Parenti, CommonDreams.org, 22 October 2007

Biography: Mother Teresa

Criticism

"The Illusory vs The Real Mother Teresa", by Michael Hakeem, is a review of Christopher Hitchens' ''The Missionary Position''. Published in ''Freethought Today'', August 1996.

Christopher Hitchens' articles:

* "Saint to the rich" in Salon.com, September 1997

* "Mommie Dearest" in ''Slate'', 20 October 2003

"The squalid truth behind the legacy of Mother Teresa" by Donal MacIntyre in the ''New Statesman'', 22 August 2005

"Mother Teresa: Where are her millions?", ''Stern'' 10 September 1998.

"Mother Teresa's House of Illusions" by Susan Shields

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name	Lobby Loyde
alt	Upper body shot of a man playing a guitar with letters G-e-o visible. His head is turned partly to his left. There is a microphone stand in front of him. Other musical and studio equipment is around him. Another musician is obscured at bottom right.
background	non_vocal_instrumentalist
birth name	John Baslington Lyde
alias	John Barrie Lyde, Barry Lyde, Lobby Lyde
birth date	May 18, 1941
birth place	Longreach, Queensland, Australia
death date	April 21, 2007
death place	Box Hill, Victoria, Australia
origin	Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
instrument	Guitar, bass guitar, piano
genre	R&B;, rock, psychedelic, heavy rock, blues
occupation	Musician, song writer, producer
years active	1959–2006
label	Soundtrack, Sunshine, Festival, Infinity
associated acts	Purple Hearts, Wild Cherries, Billy Thorpe & the Aztecs, Coloured Balls, Rose Tattoo
notable instruments	1957 Fender Stratocaster, 1959 Fender Stratocaster, Gibson ES-335, "George Guitar" }}

Lobby Loyde (John Baslington Lyde 18 May 1941 – 21 April 2007), John Barrie Lyde or Barry Lyde was an Australian rock music guitarist, songwriter and producer.

He was a member of 1960s groups, Purple Hearts which had a Top 40 hit with "Early in the Morning" in 1966 and Wild Cherries with their hit "That's Life" in 1967. He became a leading figure in the 1970s Australian pub rock scene, particularly as a member of Billy Thorpe & the Aztecs on their No. 8 album, ''The Hoax Is Over'' (1971) and Coloured Balls for a Top 20 album ''Ball Power'' (1973). He was briefly a member of Rose Tattoo during 1979 to 1980. His solo work includes the progressive rock album, ''Plays with George Guitar'' (1971) and the space opera, ''Beyond Morgia: The Labyrinths of Klimster'' (2007).

Known for his plectrum guitar technique, Loyde inspired a legion of Australian musicians, and was also cited as an influence by international musicians such as Kurt Cobain and Henry Rollins. He was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame in 2006 where his Rose Tattoo band mate, Angry Anderson acknowledged his prowess, "More than anyone else, Lobby helped create the Australian guitar sound, long before Angus [Young] or Billy Thorpe or The Angels or Rose Tattoo. Lobby inspired Australian bands to step forward and play as loud and aggressively as they could. People are still trying to copy it today". Loyde died of lung cancer in April 2007 and was survived by his children, Shane, Frances, Rebecca, Vyvyan and Lucinda, and his second wife Debbie Nankervis.

Early years and Barry Lyde

Lobby Loyde was born as John Baslington Lyde on 18 May 1941 in Longreach, Queensland, he later wrote music as John Barrie Lyde and initially performed as Barry Lyde.^[A] His mother played classical piano and his father, a builder by trade, was a multi-instrumentalist – drums, harmonica, horn, piano and trumpet – in an 18-piece R&B; band and had a large collection of jazz and blues music records. His sister was not interested in a musical career but Loyde learned classical music, on piano and violin, as a child. He built his first guitar out of wood when a teenager and his father gave him a Fender electric guitar and amp. As Barry Lyde, he joined Brisbane group, Devil’s Disciples, in the late 1950s as a guitarist. In 1963, he joined The Stilettos, which played The Shadows-styled instrumentals. Growing up nearby, he competed in talent quests against other Brisbane acts – Bee Gees and Billy Thorpe.

In 1964, as lead guitarist, Barry Lyde joined a R&B; group, The Impacts, which had formed a year earlier with Bob Dames on bass guitar, Mick Hadley on vocals, Fred Pickard on rhythm guitar and Adrian Redmond on drums. The Impacts supported The Rolling Stones 1965 tour of Australia and when they arrived in Melbourne found another group with the same name, so were renamed The Purple Hearts. They were named for the pep-pills (see purple hearts) favoured by band members – not the US military decoration of same name (see Purple Heart). Their debut single was a cover of Graham Bond's "Long Legged Lovely" issued in 1965 on Soundtrack Records. Their highest charting single, "Early in the Morning", was released in October 1966 and peaked at No. 24 on ''Go-Set'''s National Top 40. The band briefly relocated to Sydney then moved on to Melbourne. They had issued three other singles and an extended play, ''The Sound of the Purple Hearts'' before splitting on 23 January 1967. "Dames started calling me Lobby because I would lobby the fuck out of people ... My last name's' L-y-d-e, so he put the 'o' in because it rhymed better". 'Lobby' is also used in Queensland for a freshwater crayfish where other Australians would say 'yabby'.

Wild Cherries and Aztecs

In January 1967, as Lobby Loyde, he joined the second incarnation of Melbourne band Wild Cherries on lead guitar. The rest of the line-up was Keith Barber on drums, Peter Eddey on bass guitar, Les Gilbert on organ and Danny Robinson on vocals. They had been an R&B; and jazz group but moved into psychedelic rock. Loyde, as John Barrie Lyde, wrote most of the band's four singles for Festival Records including "Krome Plated Yabby" from June 1967. "That's Life" issued in November was their only charting single when it reached the Top 40 in January 1968. In October, Loyde left Wild Cherries to join Billy Thorpe & the Aztecs.

Loyde had met Thorpe, in his school days, in the Brisbane suburb of Salisbury, Queensland. In August 1968, Thorpe was in Melbourne with the Aztecs being Paul Wheeler on bass guitar and Jimmy Thompson on drums. Thorpe took up lead guitar as well as lead vocals. Loyde joined in October and encouraged Thorpe's 'new' Aztecs to develop a heavier sound. By July 1970, Warren "Pig" Morgan had joined on piano and backing vocals and they recorded, ''The Hoax Is Over'', which was released in January 1971 and Loyde had left. "Under Loyde's influence, The Aztecs spearheaded the burgeoning blues, boogie and heavy rock movement of the day. It was on that foundation that Billy Thorpe earned his position as the unassailable king of Australia's early 1970s rock scene".

By July 1971, Loyde with Johnny Dick on drums and Teddy Toi on bass guitar (both ex-Fanny Adams, Billy Thorpe & the Aztecs) performed as Wild Cherries, their set included "G.O.D." (aka "Guitar Overdose"). A five-minute version of "G.O.D." was broadcast on 21 July, on Australian Broadcasting Corporation music TV series ''GTK'', and includes footage of Loyde playing 'George', his guitar. The band released a single, "I Am the Sea" on the Havoc label in 1971 and performed at the Sunbury Pop Festival in January 1972 but disbanded in February.

Coloured Balls

Lobby Loyde formed the progressive / heavy metal group Coloured Balls in March 1972 with Andrew Fordham on guitar and vocals, Janis Miglans on bass guitar and Trevor Young on drums. Their first single, "Liberate Rock", had been recorded by Loyde with Aztecs' members, Gil Mathews (on drums), Morgan and Wheeler as studio musicians – it was issued in August. During late 1972, the original line-up of Coloured Balls recorded material for an album, ''Rock Your Arse Off'', but it was not released until May 1976 as ''The First Supper Last (Or Scenes We Didn't Get to See)'' by independent label, Rainbird.

In January 1973, Coloured Balls teamed with guest vocalists Thorpe and Leo de Castro at the Sunbury Pop Festival, their performance was released in November as the "Help Me" / "Rock Me Baby" track on the live album, ''Summer Jam''. The album included Coloured Balls' 16-minute version of "G.O.D.". Fordham had been replaced on guitar by Ian Millar early in the year. Coloured Balls released three singles including "Mess of the Blues" which reached the Top 40 in October. They supported Marc Bolan & T. Rex on their Australian tour. Coloured Balls released their debut studio album, ''Ball Power'', in December on EMI, which peaked at No. 13 on the ''Go-Set'' National Top 20 albums chart in February 1974. In January, Coloured Balls played at the Sunbury Pop Festival alongside hard rockers, Buster Brown, which included Angry Anderson on vocals and Phil Rudd on drums.

Coloured Balls' second album, ''Heavy Metal Kid'' spawned the Top 40 hit, "Love You Babe" in June 1974. Along with Thorpe, Madder Lake, Buster Brown and Chain, they were supported by suburban-based sharpie gangs. Coloured Balls had fully adopted the Melbourne 1970s sharpies' culture which included wearing chisel toed shoes, jeans, tight-fitting cardigans (expensive hand-made designs by Conti or Stag), crew-cut hair style with 'rats' tails' and most sported tattoos with a spider's web on the neck being popular. Their music was influenced by U.S. bands, MC5 and The Flamin' Groovies. Pubs and town halls became battlegrounds between rival sharpie gangs. Available venues became rare and media reports accused Loyde of encouraging the violence of some sharpies. Nick Ellenford, a member of the Heidelberg sharps, recalled "[Loyde] played with a cigarette stuck permanently to his bottom lip and always appeared to be drunk or stoned ... he casually walked behind a speaker midsong, threw up, then returned to the front of the stage without missing a beat". Coloured Balls disbanded at the end of 1974 and Loyde returned to solo work.

Solo, Rose Tattoo and other projects

Lobby Loyde had left the Aztecs early in 1971 and worked on his debut solo album, ''Plays with George Guitar'', with Johnny Dick and Teddy Toi. It was issued in September and "remains a progressive rock milestone, one of the most remarkable heavy guitar records of the period".

Loyde's first record production was the debut album for Buster Brown, ''Something to Say'', which was released by Mushroom Records in December 1974. After Coloured Balls disbanded, he attempted to form a band with Buster Brown's Anderson during 1975. As a solo artist, Loyde issued "Do You Believe in Magic?" in December and followed with the critically acclaimed and instrumentally-based album ''Obsecration'' in May 1976. Loyde formed Southern Electric with former band mates, Fordham and Miglans, joined by John Dey on keyboards, Mándu on vocals and James Thompson on drums (ex-Billy Thorpe & the Aztecs).

Loyde had written a science-fiction novel, ''Beyond Morgia: The Labyrinths of Klimster'', for a proposed film. In June 1976, he recorded an accompanying concept soundtrack album, mixed and engineered by Tony Cohen, with Southern Electric over the course of a weekend. The manuscript was destroyed by Loyde after the book and related film project were rejected. In 2007, the master tapes of the album were found and it was released in Australia on Aztec Records.

From late 1976, Loyde lived in the United Kingdom, unhappy with the Australian media's continued linking of his music to violent sharpie brawls. In London, he unsuccessfully attempted to get ''Obsecretion'' released and Southern Electric's new material recorded. He ran Front of House sound for new wave bands including Doll by Doll. He returned to Australia in 1979 to form Lobby Loyde with Sudden Electric. He recruited former band mates Mándu and Matthews and they were joined by Gavin Carroll on bass guitar. Sydney's radio station, 2JJ broadcast a live-to-air performance in mid-1979 which was recorded as ''Live with Dubs'' – the vocals were re-done by Mándu and guest vocalist Anderson (then with Rose Tattoo) – and released in 1980 by Mushroom Records.

In October 1979, Loyde joined Rose Tattoo on bass guitar, the line-up was Anderson on vocals, Mick Cocks on guitars, Dallas Royall on drums and Peter Wells on guitars. During his brief tenure, they recorded "Legalise Realise" which was released as an independent single in March 1980, backed with the track "Bong on Aussie" by country singer Colin Paterson, to publicise a campaign to legalise marijuana. They toured the United States, recorded an unreleased album in Los Angeles, and then toured Europe (including UK), but by September Loyde had left and earlier bass guitarist Gordie Leach had returned.

Loyde turned his attention to more production work, including albums for X, The Sunnyboys, Machinations and Painters and Dockers.

Later years

In 1990, Lobby Loyde was bass guitarist for Dirt with Jex Byron on vocals (ex-Olympic Sideburns), Mick Holmes on guitar (Zimmermen), Leach on bass guitar (Rose Tattoo) and Cal MacAlpine on drums (Chosen Few). Fish Tree Mother was his new band in 1997 with Bruce Aitken, Peter Coomber and Graham Duncan. On 14 November 1998, with Billy Thorpe & the Aztecs, Loyde appeared at the Mushroom 25 Concert on guitar for "Most People I Know" and "Ooh Poo Pah Doo".

''Long Way to the Top'' was a 2001 Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) six-part documentary on the history of Australian rock and roll from 1956 to the modern era. Loyde featured on "Episode 2: Ten Pound Rocker 1963–1968" broadcast on 22 August, where he discussed the early 1960s club and disco scene in Melbourne. Purple Hearts' "Just a Little Bit" was used on the episode's soundtrack. "Episode 3: Billy Killed the Fish", broadcast on 29 August, featured interviews with Loyde, Michael Chugg (manager / promoter) and Thorpe. They described their Sunbury festival experiences and the development of pub rock in Australia. Wild Cherries' "G.O.D." was used for that episode. During August 2002, promoters Chugg and Kevin Jacobsen with Thorpe as co-producer, organised a related concert tour, Long Way to the Top. Concerts included Loyde performing with Coloured Balls. Performances at two Sydney shows in September were recorded, broadcast on ABC-TV and subsequently released on DVD in December. The DVD included an interview with Loyde and the Coloured Balls and their performance of "G.O.D."/"Human Being" and "Liberate Rock".

Purple Hearts reformed briefly in 2005 for a reunion concert series with the 1964 line-up of Dames on bass guitar, Hadley on vocals and harmonica, Loyde on guitar and Pickard on rhythm guitar supplemented by Craig Claxton on lead guitar and Keith Megson on drums.

In 2005, Loyde was diagnosed with lung cancer and a benefit concert, in Melbourne (at which he also played) raised $90,000 for medical costs. In August 2006, Loyde re-joined Rose Tattoo to replace slide guitarist Peter Wells, who had died of cancer. In 1980, Loyde had recorded an as-yet-unreleased album (as from June 2008) in Los Angeles when a member of Rose Tattoo, with Billy Thorpe guesting. He was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame in August, alongside Rose Tattoo, Divinyls, Icehouse, Daddy Cool and Helen Reddy. Fellow bandmate, Angry Anderson of Rose Tattoo described Loyde's influence:

More than anyone else, Lobby helped create the Australian guitar sound, long before Angus [Young] or Billy Thorpe or The Angels or Rose Tattoo. Lobby inspired Australian bands to step forward and play as loud and aggressively as they could. People are still trying to copy it today.

The last album Loyde produced and performed on was ''The Odyssey'' by Michael Fein, which was released on 6 October 2008.

On 21 April 2007, Lobby Loyde died, from lung cancer, in Box Hill, Melbourne, aged 65. Known for his plectrum guitar technique, Loyde inspired a legion of Australian musicians, and was also cited as an influence by international musicians such as Kurt Cobain and Henry Rollins.

Personal life

Lobby Loyde's first marriage provided a son, Shane Loyde (born ca. 1967).

He met Australian actress, Debbie Nankervis (born 1953) when in London in 1979 and they were married for 26 years. Nankervis was later a model and advertising representative. Their children are Frances (born 1982), Rebecca (born ca. 1985), Vyvyan (born ca. 1987) and Lucinda (born ca. 1988). At the time of his death, on 21 April 2007, he had been separated from Nankervis.

Discography

Albums

Lobby Loyde – ''Plays with George Guitar'' (Infinity, September 1971)

Coloured Balls – ''Summer Jam'' (November 1973)

Coloured Balls – ''Ball Power'' (EMI, December 1973)

Coloured Balls – ''Heavy Metal Kid (EMI, 1974)

Lobby Loyde – ''Obsecration (Rainbird, May 1976)

Lobby Loyde with Sudden Electric – ''Live with Dubs'' (Mushroom, 1980)

Lobby Loyde – ''Beyond Morgia: The Labyrinths of Klimster'' (recorded 1976, released Aztec Records, 2007)

Singles

Producer

Lobby Loyde has produced the following works:

Buster Brown – ''Something to Say'' (1974)

Doll by Doll (1979)

X – ''X-Aspirations'' (1979)

The Sunnyboys – ''The Sunnyboys'' (Extended Play, December 1980)

Machinations – "Average Inadequacy" (26 August 1981)

The Sunnyboys – ''The Sunnyboys'' (September 1981)

Kevin Borich – ''Shy Boys Shy Girls'' (EP, 1981)

Machinations – ''Machinations'' (EP, December 1981)

Flaming Hands – "Wake Up Screaming" (1981)

The Tablewaiters – "Between the Lines" (1981)

Sardine v – "Sabotage" (1981)

The Sunnyboys – ''Individuals'' (May 1982)

Kevin Borich – "Getting So Excited" (1982)

Models – "On" (August 1982)

I Am Joe's Music – ''I Am Joe's Music'' (1983)

Machinations – ''Esteem (album)'' (April 1983)

Gravity Pirates – ''This Way to the Cargo Cult'' (EP, 1983)

Painters and Dockers – ''Love Planet'' (1984)

Hoi Polloi (1984)

Spectres Revenge – "No Moon at Midnight" (1985)

The Arctic Circles – ''Angel'' (EP, 1985)

The Shindiggers – ''Beat Is Back'' (EP, 1985)

Depression – ''Australia Australia'' (1985)

X – ''At Home with You'' (1985)

Urban Tribe (1987)

Large #12's – ''Dance the Demon Out'' (EP, 1988)

Painters and Dockers – ''Kiss My Art'' (August 1988)

X – ''And More'' (1989)

The Zimmermen – ''Way Too Casual'' (1989)

Michael Fein – ''The Odyssey'' (6 October 2008)

Notes

1. ^For names, Lobby Loyde, John Baslingtion Lyde and Barry Lyde see McFarlane. For John Barrie Lyde see Australasian Performing Rights Association search result for song writer and performer of "Liberate Rock". For birth year and birth place see McFarlane. For full date and place of birth see Swift.

References

;General Note: Archived [on-line] copy has limited functionality. ;Specific

External links

LobbyLoyde.com (official website)

Obituary by Glenn A. Baker Obituary by Iain Shedden.

Long Way to the Top Video Vault. Note: User needs to choose Artist Name: Lobby Loyde and then one of three video interviews, "Good Vibrations", "From Psychedelics to Hard Rock" or "Getting Somewhere".

Category:Australian guitarists Category:ARIA Award winners Category:ARIA Hall of Fame inductees Category:1941 births Category:2007 deaths Category:Deaths from lung cancer Category:Cancer deaths in Victoria (Australia) Category:People from Brisbane

Name	John Reed
Birth date	February 07, 1969
Birth place	TriBeCa, New York City
Nationality	American
Alma mater	Columbia University
Occupation	novelist
Website	''http://www.johnreed.tv''

John Reed (born February 7, 1969) is an American novelist. He is the author of four novels: ''A Still Small Voice'' (2000), ''Snowball's Chance'' (2002) with a preface by Alexander Cockburn, ''The Whole'' (2005), and ''All the World's a Grave: A New Play by William Shakespeare'' (2008). His fifth book, ''Tales of Woe'' (2010), is a collection of twenty-five stories, chronicling true stories of abject misery.

Biography

Born in 1969 in New York City, Reed is the son of artist David Reed and Judy Rifka. He attended Hampshire College, and received a Masters in Fine Art in Creative Writing from Columbia University. He teaches at The New School.

Reed was an early contributor to, and subsequently an editor with, ''Open City'', a New York literary journal published by Robert Bingham, who later founded the book series.

Works

thumb|left|Reed in Brooklyn reading from his non-fiction ''Tales of Woe'', at the [[MTV|MTV Press/Brooklyn Rail launch party.]]He is affiliated with the ''New York Press'' and ''The Brooklyn Rail''. "Americans are extremely sophisticated in terms of narrative forms," said Reed in an interview. "We see it in commercials, we see it on TV, we see it in movies. But the narrative forms we're talking about are three acts, five acts, depending on how you want to look at it. They're all based on a Christian model of sin, suffering, redemption; which is not a large model."

A Still Small Voice

''A Still Small Voice'' (Delacorte 2000, Delta 2001), Reed’s first novel, is a historical novel based on the life of a girl growing up in Kentucky from 1850-1870.

Snowball's Chance

''Snowball's Chance'' (Roof Books 2002/2003), Reed’s second novel was a controversial send-up of George Orwell’s ''Animal Farm'', and ended in a cataclysmic attack on the “Twin Mills” (reminiscent of the 9/11 attack on the World Trade Center). It became a bestseller in the field of books by independent literary publishers.

The Whole, or, Duh Whole

''The Whole'', Reed’s third novel, parodied MTV and was released in 2005 by MTV Books (Simon & Schuster). The novel described a gigantic hole that appears in the middle of the country, which engulfs four states.

All the World's a Grave

Reed, in a new work, returns to the overhaul of canonical English writers in ''All the World's a Grave'', fall 2008, Penguin Books. The work, subtitled "''A New Play by William Shakespeare''", is a tragedy in five acts, a "mash-up" constructed of lines drawn from five Shakespeare tragedies and one Shakespeare history; Hamlet, King Lear, Macbeth, Othello, Romeo & Juliet and Henry V. In the "literary trick" (as described by Page Six of The New York Post) Shakespeare's lines are rearranged into a wholly new story, in which Prince Hamlet of Denmark goes to war to claim his bride and the daughter of King Lear, Juliet. Upon a triumphant return home, Hamlet discovers that his mother has murdered his father, and married Macbeth. Visited by his father's ghost, and goaded by the opportunistic Lieutenant Iago, Hamlet is driven mad by the erroneous belief that Juliet is having an affair with General Romeo.

References

External links

John Reed's website

All the World's a Grave'', book website.

Kill the beavers!, ''The Daily Telegraph'', November 22, 2002.

John Reed: Saint George and the Damn Truth, ''Moby Lives'', Nove,ber 10, 2003.

John Reed: The Whole, an excerpt, ''Brooklyn Rail'', January 2005.

Dinitia Smith: A Pig Returns to the Farm, Thumbing His Snout at Orwell, ''The New York Times'', November 25, 2002.

Cathy Young: Blaming the Victim, ''Reason.com'', December 3, 2002.

Andrea Scrima: Review of Tales of Woe, Rumpus, November 16, 2010.

Interview with Arthur Phillips on rewriting Shakespeare

Category:1969 births Category:Living people Category:American novelists Category:American humorists Category:Writers from New York Category:Hampshire College alumni Category:Columbia University alumni Category:George Orwell Category:The New School faculty