Journalism is the practice of investigation and reporting of events, issues and trends to a broad audience. Though there are many variations of journalism, the ideal is to inform the intended audience. Along with covering organizations and institutions such as government and business, journalism also covers cultural aspects of society such as arts and entertainment. The field includes editing, photojournalism, and documentary.

Johann Carolus's ''Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien'', published in 1605 in Strassburg, is often recognized as the first newspaper. The first successful English daily, the ''Daily Courant'', was published from 1702 to 1735.

In modern society, news media has become the chief purveyor of information and opinion about public affairs; but the role and status of journalism, along with other forms of mass media, are undergoing changes resulting from the Internet.

History

The first newspapers were distributed in 17th century England, twice-weekly. Another successful English newspaper which came in later was ''The Daily Courant.''

The first newspaper in the American colonies – Benjamin Harris's ''Publick Occurrences both Foreighn and Domestick'' – was published in 1690 but was immediately shut down for not having a required license. Most American newspapers of the time period were against the British government, resulting in Britain cracking down on the press. There were several hundred newspapers in the U.S. by 1800. In 1833, Benjamin Day opened ''The Sun (New York)'' and created the "Penny Press." Day's papers, filled with sensational content and aimed at a working class audience, sold large amounts. During the Civil War, photography, allowing more accurate illustrations, and telegraphy, greatly increasing speed, were developed. In 1846, The Associated Press wire service was formed as a cooperative venture between several large newspapers to share news that arrived by telegraph from Europe. AP is now one of the world's oldest news agencies. In 1851, George Jones (publisher) and Henry Raymond opened ''The New York Daily Times'', later renamed ''The New York Times''. In the 1890s, Joseph Pulitzer, owning newspapers in New York and elsewhere, coined the term "yellow journalism"; coming from the name of comic strip – "The Yellow Kid" – published by Pulitzer.

Format

Newspapers and periodicals often contain features (see Feature style) often composed by journalists who specialize in this form.

Feature articles are usually longer forms of writing; more attention is paid to style than in straight news reports. They are often combined with photographs, drawings or other "art." They may also be highlighted by typographic effects or colors.

Writing features can be more demanding than writing straight news stories, because while a journalist must apply the same amount of effort to accurately gather and report the facts of the story, the journalist should also write it to be creative and interesting. The ''lead'' (or first few paragraphs of the story; see Nut graph) must grab the reader's attention and still accurately embody the ideas of the article.

In the last half of the 20th century, the line blurred between straight news reporting and feature writing. Journalists and publications today experiment with different approaches to writing. Tom Wolfe, Gay Talese, Hunter S. Thompson are some of these examples. Urban and alternative newsweeklies go even further in blurring the distinction, and many magazines include more features than straight news.

Some television news shows experimented with alternative formats, and many TV shows that claimed to be news shows were not considered as such by traditional critics, because their content and methods do not adhere to accepted journalistic standards. National Public Radio, on the other hand, is considered a good example of mixing straight news reporting, features, and combinations of the two, usually meeting standards of high quality. Other U.S. public radio news organizations have achieved similar results.

Role of journalism

In the 1920s, as modern journalism was just taking form, writer Walter Lippmann and American philosopher John Dewey debated over the role of journalism in a democracy. Their differing philosophies still characterize a debate about the role of journalism in society and the nation-state.

Lippmann understood that journalism's role at the time was to act as a mediator or translator between the public and policy making elites. The journalist became the middleman. When elites spoke, journalists listened and recorded the information, distilled it, and passed it on to the public for their consumption. His reasoning behind this was that the public was not in a position to deconstruct the growing and complex flurry of information present in modern society, and so an intermediary was needed to filter news for the masses. Lippman put it this way: The public is not smart enough to understand complicated, political issues. Furthermore, the public was too consumed with their daily lives to care about complex public policy. Therefore the public needed someone to interpret the decisions or concerns of the elite to make the information plain and simple. That was the role of journalists. Lippmann believed that the public would affect the decision-making of the elite with their vote. In the meantime, the elite (i.e. politicians, policy makers, bureaucrats, scientists, etc.) would keep the business of power running. In Lippman's world, the journalist's role was to inform the public of what the elites were doing. It was also to act as a watchdog over the elites, as the public had the final say with their votes. Effectively that kept the public at the bottom of the power chain, catching the flow of information that is handed down from experts/elites.

Lippmann's elitism has had consequences that he came to deplore. An apostle of historicism and scientism, Lippmann did not merely hold that democratic government was a problemmatic exercise, but regarded all political communities, of whatever stripe, as needing guidance from a transcendent partisanship for accurate information and dispassionate judgment. In "Liberty and the News" (1919) and "Public Opinion" (1921) Lippmann expressed the hope that liberty could be redefined to take account of the scientific and historical perspective and that public opinion could be managed by a system of intelligence in and out of government. Thus the liberty of the journalist was to be dedicated to gathering verifiable facts while commentators like himself would place the news in the broader perspective. Lippmann deplored the influence of powerful newspaper publishers and preferred the judgments of the "patient and fearless men of science." In so doing, he did not merely denigrate the opinion of the majority but also of those who had influence or power as well. In a republican form of government, the representatives are chosen by the people and share with them adherence to the fundamental principles and political institutions of the polity. Lippmann's quarrel was with those very principles and institutions, for they are the product of the pre-scientific and pre-historical viewpoint and what for him was a groundless natural rights political philosophy.

But Lippmann turned against what he called the "collectivism" of the Progressive movement he encouraged with its de-emphasis on the foundations of American politics and government and ultimately wrote a work, "The Public Philosophy" (1955), which came very close to a return to the principles of the American founders.

Dewey, on the other hand, believed the public was not only capable of understanding the issues created or responded to by the elite, it was in the public forum that decisions should be made after discussion and debate. When issues were thoroughly vetted, then the best ideas would bubble to the surface. Dewey believed journalists should do more than simply pass on information. He believed they should weigh the consequences of the policies being enacted. Over time, his idea has been implemented in various degrees, and is more commonly known as "community journalism".

This concept of ''community journalism'' is at the centre of new developments in journalism. In this new paradigm, journalists are able to engage citizens and the experts/elites in the proposition and generation of content. It's important to note that while there is an assumption of equality, Dewey still celebrates expertise. Dewey believes the shared knowledge of many is far superior to a single individual's knowledge. Experts and scholars are welcome in Dewey's framework, but there is not the hierarchical structure present in Lippman's understanding of journalism and society. According to Dewey, conversation, debate, and dialogue lie at the heart of a democracy.

While Lippman's journalistic philosophy might be more acceptable to government leaders, Dewey's approach is a better description of how many journalists see their role in society, and, in turn, how much of society expects journalists to function. Americans, for example, may criticize some of the excesses committed by journalists, but they tend to expect journalists to serve as watchdogs on government, businesses and actors, enabling people to make informed decisions on the issues of the time.

The elements of journalism

According to ''The Elements of Journalism'', a book by Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel, there are nine elements of journalism. In order for a journalist to fulfill their duty of providing the people with the information, they need to be free and self-governing. They must follow these guidelines:

# Journalism's first obligation is to the truth. # Its first loyalty is to the citizens. # Its essence is discipline of verification. # Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover. # It must serve as an independent monitor of power. # It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise. # It must strive to make the news significant, interesting, and relevant. # It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional. # Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience.

In the April 2007 edition of the book, they added the last element, ''the rights and responsibilities of citizens'' to make it a total of ten elements of journalism.

Professional and ethical standards

In the UK, all newspapers are bound by the Code of Practice of the Press Complaints Commission. This includes points like respecting people's privacy and ensuring accuracy. However, the Media Standards Trust has criticised the PCC, claiming it needs to be radically changed to secure public trust of newspapers.

This is in stark contrast to the media climate prior to the 20th Century, where the media market was dominated by smaller newspapers and pamphleteers who usually had an overt and often radical agenda, with no presumption of balance or objectivity.

Failing to uphold standards

Such a code of conduct can, in the real world, be difficult to uphold consistently. Journalists who believe they are being fair or objective may give biased accounts—by reporting selectively, trusting too much to anecdote, or giving a partial explanation of actions. (See Media bias.) Even in routine reporting, bias can creep into a story through a reporter's choice of facts to summarize, or through failure to check enough sources, hear and report dissenting voices, or seek fresh perspectives.

A news organization's budget inevitably reflects decision-making about what news to cover, for what audience, and in what depth. Those decisions may reflect conscious or unconscious bias. When budgets are cut, editors may sacrifice reporters in distant news bureaus, reduce the number of staff assigned to low-income areas, or wipe entire communities from the publication's zone of interest.

Publishers, owners and other corporate executives, especially advertising sales executives, can try to use their powers over journalists to influence how news is reported and published. Journalists usually rely on top management to create and maintain a "firewall" between the news and other departments in a news organization to prevent undue influence on the news department. One journalism magazine, Columbia Journalism Review, has made it a practice to reveal examples of executives who try to influence news coverage, of executives who do not abuse their powers over journalists, and of journalists who resist such pressures.

Self-censorship is a growing problem in journalism, particularly in covering countries that sharply restrict press freedom. As commercial pressure in the media marketplace grows, media organizations are loath to lose access to high-profile countries by producing unflattering stories. For example, CNN admitted that it had practiced self-censorship in covering the Saddam Hussein regime in Iraq in order to ensure continued access after the regime had thrown out other media. CNN correspondent Christiane Amanpour also complained of self-censorship during the invasion of Iraq due to the fear of alienating key audiences in the US. There are claims that the media are also avoiding covering stories about repression and human rights violations by the Israeli and Iranian regimes in order to maintain a presence in those countries.

Legal status

Governments have widely varying policies and practices towards journalists, which control what they can research and write, and what press organizations can publish. Some governments guarantee the freedom of the press; while other nations severely restrict what journalists can research and/or publish.

Journalists in many nations have some privileges that members of the general public do not; including better access to public events, crime scenes and press conferences, and to extended interviews with public officials, celebrities and others in the public eye.

Journalists who elect to cover conflicts, whether wars between nations or insurgencies within nations, often give up any expectation of protection by government, if not giving up their rights to protection by government. Journalists who are captured or detained during a conflict are expected to be treated as civilians and to be released to their national government.

Right to protect confidentiality of sources

Journalists' interaction with sources sometimes involves confidentiality, an extension of freedom of the press giving journalists a legal protection to keep the identity of a confidential informant private even when demanded by police or prosecutors; withholding sources can land journalists in contempt of court, or in jail.

In the United States, there is no right to protect sources in a federal court; Though federal courts will refuse to force journalists to reveal sources, unless the information the court seeks is highly relevant to the case, and there's no other way to get it. State courts provide varying degrees of such protection. Journalists who refuse to testify even when ordered to can be found in contempt of court and fined or jailed.

Types of journalism

The general field of journalism has become specialized with various types of writing, depending on the audience and motives of the writers. Distinctions are also made to separate various journalism genres as categories of writing. Some types include: :* Advocacy journalism - writing to advocate particular viewpoints or influence the opinions of the audience. :* Broadcast journalism - writing or speaking which is intended to be distributed by radio or television broadcasting, rather than only in written form for readers. :* Investigative journalism - writing which seeks to add extra information to explain, or better describe the people and events of a particular topic. :* Tabloid journalism - writing which uses opinionated or wild claims. :* Yellow journalism (or sensationalism) - writing which emphasizes exaggerated claims or rumors.

See also

Citizen Journalism

Creative nonfiction

History of American newspapers

History of journalism

Journalism education and Journalism school

Journalism ethics and standards

Journalism genres

Non-profit journalism

Objectivity (journalism)

Reporters without borders

Journalism reviews

''American Journalism Review''

''Columbia Journalism Review''

''Health News Review''

''Ryerson Review of Journalism''

References

External links

Category:Journalism

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Coordinates	°′″N°′″N
name	Bob Woodward
birthname	Robert Upshur Woodward
birth date	March 26, 1943
birth place	Geneva, Illinois, U.S.
age	66
education	Yale University, B.A., 1965
occupation	Journalist
gender	Male
status	married
spouse	Elsa Walsh
children	Two daughters
credits	''The Washington Post''
url	http://www.bobwoodward.com/ }}

Robert Upshur Woodward (born March 26, 1943) is an American investigative journalist and non-fiction author. He has worked for ''The Washington Post'' since 1971 as a reporter, and is currently an associate editor of the Post. While a young reporter for ''The Washington Post'' in 1972, Woodward was teamed up with Carl Bernstein; the two did much of the original news reporting on the Watergate scandal. These scandals led to numerous government investigations and the eventual resignation of President Richard Nixon. Gene Roberts, the former executive editor of ''The Philadelphia Inquirer'' and former managing editor of ''The New York Times'', has called the work of Woodward and Bernstein "maybe the single greatest reporting effort of all time."

Early life and career

Woodward was born to Jane (née Upshur) and Alfred Woodward in Geneva, Illinois. He was a resident of Wheaton, Illinois. He enrolled in Yale University with an NROTC scholarship, and studied history and English literature. While at Yale, Woodward joined the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity. He received his B.A. degree in 1965, and began a five-year tour of duty in the U.S. Navy. After being discharged as a lieutenant in August, 1970, Woodward considered attending law school but applied for a job as a reporter for The Washington Post, while taking graduate courses at The George Washington University. Harry M. Rosenfeld, the Post's metropolitan editor, gave him a two-week trial but did not hire him because of his lack of journalistic experience. After a year at the Montgomery Sentinel, a weekly newspaper in the Washington, D.C. suburbs, Woodward was hired as a Post reporter in September, 1971.

Woodward has authored or coauthored 15 non-fiction books in the last 35 years. All 15 have been national bestsellers and 11 of them have been #1 national non-fiction bestsellers – more #1 national non-fiction bestsellers than any contemporary author. He has written multiple #1 national non-fiction bestsellers on a wide range of subjects in each of the four decades he has been active as an author, from 1974 to 2009.

In his 1995 memoir ''A Good Life,'' former executive editor of the Post Ben Bradlee singled out Woodward in the foreword. "It would be hard to overestimate the contributions to my newspaper and to my time as editor of that extraordinary reporter, Bob Woodward – surely the best of his generation at investigative reporting, the best I've ever seen. ... And Woodward has maintained the same position on top of journalism's ladder ever since Watergate."

David Gergen, who had worked in the White House during the Richard Nixon and three subsequent administrations said in his 2000 memoir ''Eyewitness to Power'', of Woodward's reporting, "I don't accept everything he writes as gospel – he can get details wrong – but generally, his accounts in both his books and in the Post are remarkably reliable and demand serious attention. I am convinced he writes only what he believes to be true or has been reliably told to be true. And he is certainly a force for keeping the government honest."

Career recognition and awards

Woodward made crucial contributions to two Pulitzer Prizes won by ''The Washington Post''. First he and Bernstein were the lead reporters on Watergate and the ''Post'' won the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service in 1973.

Woodward also was the main reporter for the ''Post'''s coverage of the September 11 attacks in 2001. Ten stories won the 2002 Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting – "six carrying the familiar byline of Bob Woodward," noted the ''New York Times'' article announcing the awards.

He has been a recipient of nearly every other major American journalism award, including the Heywood Broun award (1972), Worth Bingham Prize for Investigative Reporting (1972 and 1986), Sigma Delta Chi Award (1973), George Polk Award (1972), William Allen White Medal (2000), and the Gerald R. Ford Prize for Reporting on the Presidency (2002).

Fred Barnes of the ''Weekly Standard'' called Woodward "the best pure reporter of his generation, perhaps ever." In 2003, Albert Hunt of The Wall Street Journal called Woodward "the most celebrated journalist of our age." In 2004, Bob Schieffer of CBS News said, "Woodward has established himself as the best reporter of our time. He may be the best reporter of all time."

Career

Watergate

Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein were assigned to report on the June 17, 1972 burglary of the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee in a Washington, D.C. office building called Watergate. Their work, under editor Benjamin C. Bradlee, became known for being the first to report on a number of political "dirty tricks" used by the Nixon re-election committee during his campaign for reelection. Their book about the scandal, ''All the President's Men'', became a #1 best-seller and was later turned into a movie. The 1976 film, starring Robert Redford as Woodward and Dustin Hoffman as Bernstein, transformed the reporters into celebrities and inspired a wave of interest in investigative journalism.

The book and movie also led to one of Washington, D.C.'s most famous mysteries: the identity of Woodward's secret Watergate informant known as Deep Throat, a reference to the title of a popular pornographic movie at the time. Woodward said he would protect Deep Throat's identity until the man died or allowed his name to be revealed. For over 30 years, only Woodward, Bernstein, and a handful of others knew the informant's identity until it was claimed by his family to ''Vanity Fair'' magazine to be former Federal Bureau of Investigation Associate Director W. Mark Felt in May 2005. Woodward has confirmed this claim and published a book, titled ''The Secret Man'', which detailed his relationship with Felt.

Woodward and Bernstein followed up with a second successful book on Watergate, entitled ''The Final Days'' (Simon and Schuster 1976), covering in extensive depth the period from November 1973 until President Nixon resigned in August 1974.

The Woodward and Bernstein Watergate Papers are housed at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin.

George W. Bush administration

Woodward spent more time than any other journalist with former President George W. Bush, interviewing him six times for close to eleven hours total. Woodward's four books, ''Bush at War'' (2002), ''Plan of Attack'' (2004), ''State of Denial'' (2006), and ''The War Within: A Secret White House History (2006–2008)'' (2008) are detailed accounts of the Bush presidency, including the response to the September 11 attacks and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. In a series of articles published in January 2002, he and Dan Balz described the events at Camp David in the aftermath of September 11 and discussed the Worldwide Attack Matrix.

Woodward believed the Bush Administration's claims of Iraqi WMDs prior to the war. During an appearance on Larry King Live, he was asked by a telephone caller "Suppose we go to war and go into Iraq and there are no weapons of mass destruction," Woodward responded "I think the chance of that happening is about zero. There's just too much there."

On February 1, 2008, as a part of the Authors @ Google series, Woodward, who was interviewed by Google CEO Eric E. Schmidt, said that he had a fourth book in his Bush at War series in the making. He then added jokingly that his wife told him that she would kill him if he decides to write a fifth in the series.

Involvement in the Plame scandal

On November 14, 2005, Woodward gave a two-hour deposition to Special Counsel Patrick Fitzgerald. He testified that a senior administration official told him in June 2003 that Iraq war critic Joe Wilson’s wife (later identified as Valerie Plame), worked for the CIA. Woodward appears to have been the first reporter to learn about her employment (albeit not her name) from a government source. The deposition was reported in ''The Washington Post'' on November 16, 2005, and was the first time Woodward revealed publicly that he had any special knowledge about the case. Woodward testified the information was given to him in a “casual” and “offhand” manner, and said that he does not believe it was part of any coordinated effort to “out” Plame as a CIA employee. Later, Woodward's source identified himself. It was Richard Armitage, Colin Powell's deputy and an internal critic of the Iraq War and the White House inner circle.

Woodward said the revelation came at the end of a long, confidential background interview for his 2004 book ''Plan of Attack''. He did not reveal the official’s disclosure at the time because it did not strike him as important. Later, he kept it to himself because it came as part of a confidential conversation with a source.

In his deposition, Woodward also said that he had conversations with Scooter Libby after the June 2003 conversation with his confidential Administration source, and testified that it is possible that he might have asked Libby further questions about Joe Wilson’s wife before her employment at the CIA and her identity were publicly known.

Woodward apologized to Leonard Downie, Jr., the editor of ''The Washington Post'' for not informing him earlier of the June 2003 conversation. Downie accepted the apology and said even had the paper known it would not have changed its reporting.

New York University Professor Jay Rosen severely criticized Woodward for allegedly being co-opted by the Bush White House and also for not telling the truth about his role in the Plame affair, writing: "Not only is Woodward not in the hunt, but he is slowly turning into the hunted. Part of what remains to be uncovered is how Woodward was played by the Bush team, and what they thought they were doing by leaking to him, as well as what he did with the dubious information he got."

Other professional activities

Woodward has continued to write books and report stories for ''The Washington Post,'' and serves as an associate editor at the paper. He focuses on the presidency, intelligence, and Washington institutions such as the U.S. Supreme Court, The Pentagon, and the Federal Reserve. He also wrote the book ''Wired'', about the Hollywood drug culture and the death of comic John Belushi.

Criticism

Criticisms of style

Woodward often uses unnamed sources in his reporting for the Post and in his books. Using extensive interviews with firsthand witnesses, documents, meeting notes, diaries, calendars and other documentation, Woodward attempts to construct a seamless narrative of events, most often told through the eyes of the key participants.

Nicholas von Hoffman has made the criticism that "arrestingly irrelevant detail is [often] used," while Michael Massing believes Woodward's books are "filled with long, at times tedious passages with no evident direction." Christopher Hitchens of Salon.com has dismissed him as a "stenographer to the stars."

Joan Didion has leveled the most comprehensive criticism of Woodward, in a lengthy September 1996 essay in ''The New York Review of Books''. Though "Woodward is a widely trusted reporter, even an American icon," she says that he assembles reams of often irrelevant detail, fails to draw conclusions, and make judgments. "Measurable cerebral activity is virtually absent" from his books after Watergate from 1979 to 1996, she said. She said the books are notable for "a scrupulous passivity, an agreement to cover the story not as it is occurring but as it is presented, which is to say as it is manufactured." She ridicules "fairness" as "a familiar newsroom piety, the excuse in practice for a good deal of autopilot reporting and lazy thinking." All this focus on what people said and thought – their "decent intentions" – circumscribes "possible discussion or speculation," resulting in what she called "political pornography."

The Post's Richard Harwood defended Woodward in a September 6, 1996 column, arguing that Woodward's method is that of a reporter – "talking to people you write about, checking and cross-checking their versions of contemporary history," and collecting documentary evidence in notes, letters and records."

Criticisms of content

Woodward has been accused of exaggeration and fabrication, most notably regarding "Deep Throat", his famous Watergate informant. Even since W. Mark Felt was announced as the true identity behind Deep Throat, John Dean and Ed Gray, in separate publications, have used Woodward's book ''All The President's Men'' and his published notes on his meetings with Deep Throat to show that Deep Throat could not have been only Mark Felt. They argued that Deep Throat was a fictional composite made up of several Woodward sources, only one of whom was Felt. Gray, in his book ''In Nixon's Web'', even goes so far as to publish an e-mail and telephone exchange he had with Donald Santarelli, a Washington lawyer who was a justice department official during Watergate, in which Santarelli confirmed to Gray that he was the source behind statements Woodward recorded in notes he has attributed to Deep Throat.

J. Bradford DeLong has noticed strong inconsistencies between the accounts of the making of Clinton economic policy described both in Woodward's book ''Maestro'' and his book ''The Agenda''.

Some of Woodward's critics accuse him of abandoning critical inquiry to maintain his access to high-profile political actors. Anthony Lewis called the style "a trade in which the great grant access in return for glory." Christopher Hitchens accused Woodward of acting as "stenographer to the rich and powerful."

Woodward believed the Bush Administration's claims of Iraqi WMDs prior to the war, and the publication of the book At the Center of the Storm: My Years at the CIA by former DCI George Tenet led Woodward to engage in a rather tortuous account of the extent of his pre-war conversations with Tenet in an article in ''The New Yorker Magazine'' in which he also chastised ''New York Times'' op-ed columnist Maureen Dowd for being critical of him.

Woodward's dual role as journalist and author has opened him up to occasional criticism for sitting on information for publication in a book, rather than presenting it sooner when it might affect the events at hand. In ''The Commanders'' (1991), for instance, he indicated that Colin Powell had opposed Operation Desert Storm, yet Woodward did not publish this information before Congress voted on a war resolution. And in ''Veil'', he indicates that former CIA Director William J. Casey personally knew of arms sales to the Contras, but he did not reveal this until after the Congressional investigation.

Martin Dardis, the chief investigator for the Dade County State Attorney, who in 1972 discovered that the money found on the Watergate burglars came from the Committee to Re-elect the President, has complained that ''All the President's Men'' misrepresented him.

A review by Anthony Lewis in ''The New York Review of Books'' challenged the claim in ''The Brethren'' (written by Woodward and Scott Armstrong) that Supreme Court Justice William Brennan once voted in a way he thought was wrong to avoid hurting the feelings of Justice Blackmun. Woodward and Armstrong insisted they had one of Brennan's clerks confirm the story on the record; Lewis interviewed everyone who clerked that term; all found the story false or implausible. Woodward showed the notes he'd taken on the subject to a third-party; the notes themselves were unclear but Lewis located the source of the notes who insisted that Woodward misrepresented him.

Woodward was also accused of fabricating his deathbed interview with Casey, as described in ''Veil''; critics say the interview simply could not have taken place as written in the book. Following Casey's death, President Ronald Reagan wrote: "[Woodward]'s a liar and he lied about what Casey is supposed to have thought of me." However, the CIA's own internal report found that Casey spoke to Woodward 43 times, sometimes alone at Casey's home, and his deputy Bob Gates wrote in his own book that he was able to communicate with Casey at that same time and quoted Casey making short statements similar to those reported by Woodward. The author Ronald Kessler reported similar findings in his book on the CIA.

Commentator David Frum has said, perhaps partly tongue-in-cheek, that Washington officials can learn something about the way Washington works from Woodward's books: "From his books, you can draw a composite profile of the powerful Washington player. That person is highly circumspect, highly risk averse, eschews new ideas, flatters his colleagues to their face (while trashing them to Woodward behind their backs), and is always careful to avoid career-threatening confrontation. We all admire heroes, but Woodward's books teach us that those who rise to leadership are precisely those who take care to abjure heroism for themselves."

Despite these criticisms and challenges, Woodward has been praised as an authoritative and balanced journalist. ''The New York Times Book Review'' said in 2004 that "No reporter has more talent for getting Washington’s inside story and telling it cogently."

Lecture circuit

Bob Woodward regularly gives speeches to industry lobbying groups, such as the American Bankruptcy Institute, the National Association of Chain Drug Stores, and the Mortgage Bankers Association. Woodward commands speaking fees "rang[ing] from $15,000 to $60,000" and donates them to his personal foundation, the Woodward Walsh Foundation, which donates to charities including Sidwell Friends School. ''Washington Post'' policy prohibits "speaking engagements without permission from department heads" but Woodward insists that the policy is "fuzzy and ambiguous".

Personal

Woodward now lives in the Georgetown section of Washington. He is married to Elsa Walsh, a writer for ''The New Yorker'' and the author of ''Divided Lives: The Public and Private Struggles of Three American Women''. He has two daughters.

Woodward still maintains a listed number in the Washington, D.C. phone directory. He says this is because he wants any potential news source to be able to reach him.

References

Books

Woodward has co-authored or authored twelve #1 national best-selling non-fiction books, They are:

''All the President's Men'' – about the Watergate scandal; (1974) ISBN 0-671-21781-X, 25th Anniversary issue in (1999) ISBN 0-684-86355-3; written with Carl Bernstein

''The Final Days'' – about Nixon's resignation; (1976) ISBN 0-671-22298-8; written with Carl Bernstein

''The Brethren'' – about the Supreme Court in the Warren E. Burger years; (1979) ISBN 0-671-24110-9; written with Scott Armstrong

''Wired'' – on the death of John Belushi and the Hollywood drug culture; (1984) ISBN 0-671-47320-4

''Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA'' – about the CIA's "secret wars" during the reign of William J. Casey; (1987) ISBN 0-671-60117-2

''The Commanders'' – on The Pentagon, the first Bush administration and the Gulf War; (1991) ISBN 0-671-41367-8

''The Agenda'' – about Bill Clinton's first term; (1994) ISBN 0-7432-7407-5

''Shadow'' – on the legacy of Watergate and the scandals that faced later Presidential administrations; (1999) ISBN 0-684-85262-4

''Bush at War'' – about the path to war with Afghanistan following September 11; (2002) ISBN 0-7432-0473-5

''Plan of Attack'' – about how and why President George W. Bush decided to go to war with Iraq; (2004) ISBN 0-7432-5547-X

''State of Denial: Bush at War, Part III'' – which revealed some interesting information about the Bush administration and the War in Iraq. Highly controversial, it appeared on the ''Today'' show just before its release; (2006) ISBN 0-7432-7223-4

''The War Within: A Secret White House History (2006–2008)'' – (2008) ISBN 1-4165-5897-7

''Obama's Wars'' – about the Obama administration's handling of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan; Simon & Schuster, (September, 2010). ISBN 9781439172490 (441 pp)

Other books, which have also been best-sellers but not #1, are:

''The Choice'' – about Clinton's re-election bid; (1996) ISBN 0-684-81308-4

''Maestro'' – about Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan; (2000) ISBN 0-7432-0412-3

''The Secret Man'' – about Mark Felt's disclosure, after more than thirty years, that he was Deep Throat. The book was written before Felt admitted his title, as he was sickly and Bob expected that someway or another, it would come out; (2005) ISBN 0-7432-8715-0

''Newsweek'' has excerpted five of Woodward's books in cover stories; ''60 Minutes'' has done segments on five; and three have been made into movies.

Pop culture references

On ''The Simpsons'' episode "Whacking Day", Bart reads a book called ''The Truth About Whacking Day'', written by Bob Woodward.

In the movie ''The Skulls'', the character Will Beckford tries to compare himself to Woodward while reading his column in the school newspaper.

In the movie ''Dick'', which is about Watergate, Woodward is played by actor/comedian Will Ferrell. Woodward and Bernstein are depicted as two bickering, childish near-incompetents, small-mindedly competitive with each other.

In the movie ''Wired'', adapted from Woodward's book ''Wired: The Short Life and Fast Times of John Belushi'', Woodward is portrayed onscreen by J. T. Walsh.

The graphic novel ''Watchmen'' by Alan Moore is set in a version of 1985 where Nixon is a fifth-term president. A throwaway line reveals that a pair of unknown journalists, Woodward and Bernstein, were found murdered in a garage in the early 1970s. This same scenario is used as a dystopian detail in ''Back to the Future 2''. In the episodic video game ''Watchmen: The End is Nigh'', telling about events before the graphic novel, Rorschach and Nite Owl II find Woodward and Bernstein dead in the crime lord Underboss' car's trunk. In the film film based on the series, The Comedian, while shooting at rioters, says, "Ain't had this much fun since Woodward & Bernstein."

Woodward scripted the "Der Roachenkavalier" episode of ''Hill Street Blues'' that aired on February 3, 1987.

In one ''Bloom County'' series, Woodward writes a fictional expose about the late Bill the Cat's "ugly, sordid private life", based entirely on information he got out of Opus the Penguin (although Mickey Mouse and Charlie Brown also appear to have something to do with it). A three-Sunday strip-long mockumenatry based on the Woodward book was used later to explain how Bill came back to life after dying in a car crash.

In "The Long Lead Story", episode 5 of the NBC television series ''Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip'', Matthew Perry's character Matt Albie is talking to reporter Martha O'Dell, played by Christine Lahti. She points to his show board and says, "The Lobster sketch isn't funny yet," to which he replies, "Tell me something else I don't know, Woodward"; a sarcastic jab at O'Dell's decision to report on a sketch-comedy show despite being a Pulitzer Prize-winning political reporter.

In ''The Wire'' episode "React Quotes", a borderline-incompetent journalist is referred to as "not exactly Bob Woodward."

In multiple episodes of ''Gilmore Girls'' they refer to Woodward, Ben Bradlee, Bernstein, and ''All the President's Men''.

In the film ''Assassination of a High School President'', main character ''Bobby Funke'''s style is in inspiration of Woodward & Bernstein

References

External links

Bob Woodward ''official site''

The Clash of Paradigms Articles About Ombudsmanship

Biography at the Washington Post

GQ interview

Ubben Lecture at DePauw University

Watergate Papers Web Exhibition at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin, with inventory

Category:1943 births Category:American investigative journalists Category:American journalists Category:American newspaper reporters and correspondents Category:American political writers Category:Living people Category:People from Washington, D.C. Category:People from Wheaton, Illinois Category:The Washington Post people Category:Watergate figures Category:Worth Bingham Prize recipients Category:Writers from Chicago, Illinois Category:Writers from Washington, D.C. Category:Yale University alumni

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Coordinates	°′″N°′″N
name	Jay Rosen
birth date	May 05, 1956
birth place	Buffalo, New York, USA
alma mater	New York University (PhD, 1986)
occupation	Press critic, writer, and professor of journalism }}

Jay Rosen (born May 5, 1956 in Buffalo, New York) is a media critic, a writer, and a professor of journalism at New York University.

Rosen has been on the journalism faculty at New York University since 1986; from 1999 to 2005 he served as chair of the Department.

He has been one of the earliest advocates and supporters of citizen journalism, encouraging the press to take a more active interest in citizenship, improving public debate, and enhancing life. His book about the subject, ''What Are Journalists For?'' was published in 1999. Rosen is often described in the media as an intellectual leader of the movement of public journalism.

Rosen writes frequently about issues in journalism and developments in the media. Media criticism and other articles by Rosen have appeared in ''The New York Times'', ''The Los Angeles Times'' Salon.com, ''Harper's Magazine'', and ''The Nation''.

He runs his own weblog called PressThink, which concentrates on what's happening to journalism in the age of the Net. His writing for the weblog won the Reporters Without Borders Freedom Blog award in 2005. He is also a semi-regular contributor to ''The Huffington Post''.

Rosen currently resides in New York City.

In July 2006, he announced ''NewAssignment.Net'', a project linking professional journalists and internet users. The project has received contributions of $10,000 by the Sunlight Foundation, $10,000 by Craig Newmark, $75,000 from Cambrian House and $100,000 by Reuters.

Since 2009 Rosen has collaborated with technologist and writer Dave Winer on "Rebooting the News," a weekly podcast on technology and innovation in journalism.

Notable PressThink columns and posts by Jay Rosen

March 10, 2011, "They Brought a Tote Bag to a Knife Fight: The Resignation of NPR’s CEO, Vivian Schiller".

January 20, 2008, "The Campaign Press is a Herd of Independent Minds"

April 14, 2007, "Karl Rove and the Religion of the Washington Press",

''"Savviness--that quality of being shrewd, practical, well-informed, perceptive, ironic, 'with it,' and unsentimental in all things political--is, in a sense, their professional religion. They make a cult of it. And it was this cult that Karl Rove understood and exploited for political gain."

:''Conservatives think the ideology of the Washington press corps is liberal. Liberals think the press is conservative in the sense of protecting its place in the political establishment. Karl Rove once said that the press is “less liberal than it is oppositional.” (A fascinating remark coming from Rove, since it apppears to put him at odds with the conservative base.)

:''Whereas I believe that the real—and undeclared—ideology of American journalism is savviness, and this is what made the press so vulnerable to the likes of Karl Rove.''

:''Savviness! Deep down, that’s what reporters want to believe in and actually do believe in— their own savviness and the savviness of certain others (including operators like Karl Rove.) In politics, they believe, it’s better to be savvy than it is to be honest or correct on the facts. It’s better to be savvy than it is to be just, good, fair, decent, strictly lawful, civilized, sincere or humane''.

:''Savviness is what journalists admire in others. Savvy is what they themselves dearly wish to be. (And to be unsavvy is far worse than being wrong.) Savviness—that quality of being shrewd, practical, well-informed, perceptive, ironic, “with it,” and unsentimental in all things political—is, in a sense, their professional religion. They make a cult of it. And it was this cult that Karl Rove understood and exploited for political gain.''''''

June 27, 2006, "The People Formerly Known as the Audience,"

''The people formerly known as the audience are those who were on the receiving end of a media system that ran one way, in a broadcasting pattern, with high entry fees and a few firms competing to speak very loudly while the rest of the population listened in isolation from one another— and who today are not in a situation like that at all.

''Once they were your printing presses; now that humble device, the blog, has given the press to us. That’s why blogs have been called little First Amendment machines. They extend freedom of the press to more actors.''

''Once it was your radio station, broadcasting on your frequency. Now that brilliant invention, podcasting, gives radio to us. And we have found more uses for it than you did.''

''Shooting, editing and distributing video once belonged to you, Big Media. Only you could afford to reach a TV audience built in your own image. Now video is coming into the user’s hands, and audience-building by former members of the audience is alive and well on the Web.

''

''You were once (exclusively) the editors of the news, choosing what ran on the front page. Now we can edit the news, and our choices send items to our own front pages.''

''A highly centralized media system had connected people “up” to big social agencies and centers of power but not “across” to each other. Now the horizontal flow, citizen-to-citizen, is as real and consequential as the vertical.''

''

April 9,2006, "Murray Waas is Our Woodward Now"

March 1, 2005, "The Abyss of Observation Alone"

Sept. 22, 2004,"Philip Gourevitch: Campaign Reporting as Foreign Beat"

References

External links

Rosen's Twitter account

Interview with Rosen, by Richard Poynder – on ''poynder.blogspot.com'' (personal blog)

Jay Rosen – New York University Department of Journalism faculty directory entry

"Lessons in scale from mediavolunteer.org", by Jay Rosen, posted at ''NewAssignment.Net'' ("An experiment in open-source reporting") – personal blog post of October 10, 2006. Accessed March 6, 2007.

Jay Rosen,a "Murray Waas Is Our Woodward Now". ''PressThink'' (blog), April 9, 2006. Accessed June 20, 2007.

''PressThink: Ghost of Democracy in the Media Machine'' – Jay Rosen's personal blog

Video (and audio) of debate/discussion with Jay Rosen on Bloggingheads.tv

Fact and Friction, interview with Jay Rosen on storytelling in journalism

Category:1956 births Category:Living people Category:LGBT people from the United States Category:New York University alumni Category:New York University faculty Category:American media critics Category:American academics Category:People from Buffalo, New York Category:Wikimedia Foundation Advisory Board members

de:Jay Rosen (Journalismusforscher) fr:Jay Rosen sw:Jay Rosen

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{{infobox person | name	Clay Shirky | image Clay Shirky.jpg | caption Clay Shirky at the 2006 O'Reilly Emerging Technology Conference | birth_date | birth_place Columbia, Missouri | other_names | known_for Writing | occupation Writer, consultant, lecturer }}

Clay Shirky (born 1964) is an American writer, consultant and teacher on the social and economic effects of Internet technologies. He has a joint appointment at New York University (NYU) as a Distinguished Writer in Residence at the Arthur L. Carter Journalism Institute and Assistant Arts Professor in the New Media focused graduate Interactive Telecommunications Program (ITP). His courses address, among other things, the interrelated effects of the topology of social networks and technological networks, how our networks shape culture and vice-versa.

He has written and been interviewed extensively about the Internet since 1996. His columns and writings have appeared in ''Business 2.0'', the ''New York Times'', the ''Wall Street Journal'', the ''Harvard Business Review'' and ''Wired''.

Shirky divides his time between consulting, teaching, and writing on the social and economic effects of Internet technologies. His consulting practice is focused on the rise of decentralized technologies such as peer-to-peer, web services, and wireless networks that provide alternatives to the wired client–server infrastructure that characterizes the World Wide Web.

In ''The Long Tail'', Chris Anderson calls Shirky "a prominent thinker on the social and economic effects of Internet technologies."

Early years and career

In 1986 he graduated ''cum laude'' from Yale University with a Bachelor of Arts degree in fine art.

In 1990 he founded in New York City a theater company, Hard Place Theater, in which he created and directed several "non-fiction" theater pieces using only found materials such as government documents, transcripts and cultural records. One project titled "United Airline," included the transcript of the air-to-ground conversations during a plane crash, interspersed with quotes about flying and falling.

During the 1990s in New York City he also worked as a lighting designer for numerous experimental theater and dance companies, including the Wooster Group, Elevator Repair Service and Dana Reitz.

In the early 1990s, Shirky was vice-president of the New York chapter of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and wrote technology guides for Ziff Davis. He appeared as an expert witness on Internet culture in ''Shea v. Reno'', a case cited in the U. S. Supreme Court's decision to strike down the Communications Decency Act in 1996.

Shirky was the original Professor of New Media in the Media Studies department at Hunter College, where he created the department's first undergraduate and graduate offerings in new media, and helped design the current MFA in Integrated Media Arts program.

In the fall of 2010, Shirky served as the Visiting Morrow Lecturer at Harvard Kennedy School instructing a course titled: "New Media and Public Action". Shirky currently lives in New York with his dog, George.

Views

In his book ''Here Comes Everybody'' Shirky explains how he has long spoken in favor of crowdsourcing and collaborative efforts online. He uses the phrase "the Internet runs on love" to describe the nature of such collaborations. In the book, he discusses the ways in which the action of a group adds up to something more than just aggregated individual action.

He points to four key steps. The first is sharing, a sort of “me-first collaboration” in which the social effects are aggregated after the fact; people share links, URLs, tags, and eventually come together around a type. This type of sharing is a reverse of the so-called old order of sharing, where participants congregate first and then share (examples include Flickr, and Delicious). The second is conversation, that is, the synchronization of people with each other and the coming together to learn more about something and to get better at it. The third is collaboration, in which a group forms under the purpose of some common effort. It requires a division of labor, and teamwork. It can often be characterized by people wanting to fix a market failure, and is motivated by increasing accessibility.

The fourth and final step is collective action, which Shirky says is “mainly still in the future.” The key point about collective action is that the fate of the group as a whole becomes important. In a presentation called "Gin, Television, and Social Surplus", Shirky popularized the concept of ''cognitive surplus'', the time freed from watching television which can be enormously productive when applied to other social endeavors. He also notes that we are experiencing an era where people like to produce and share just as much, if not more than they like to consume. Since technology has made the producing and sharing possible, he argues that we will see a new era of participation that will lead to big change.

Shirky has also written about "algorithmic authority," which describes the process through which unverified information is vetted for its trustworthiness through multiple sources.

The Shirky Principle

In April, 2010, Kevin Kelly cited the phrase "Institutions will try to preserve the problem to which they are the solution," and called it the "Shirky Principle", as the phrasing reminded him of the clarity of the Peter Principle.

Response to Evgeny Morozov

In March 2011, Shirky responded to questions raised by Evgeny Morozov about consulting he had done for the country Libya. Shirky explained that he had been invited in 2007 to speak in Boston to Libya's IT Minister. Shirky stated that the talk was "about using social software to improve citizen engagement in coastal towns. The idea was that those cities would be more economically successful if local policies related to the tourist trade were designed by the locals themselves." Shirky added that nothing came of the project beyond his initial talk. He defended his underlying desire to expand representative government in Libya and concluded that "the best reason to believe that social media can aid citizens in their struggle to make government more responsive is that both citizens and governments believe that."

Bibliography

''The Internet by E-Mail'' (1994) - ISBN 1-56276-240-0

''Voices from the Net'' (1995) - ISBN 1-56276-303-2

''P2P Networking Overview'' (2001) - ISBN 0-596-00185-1

''Planning for Web Services: Obstacles and Opportunities'' (2003) - ISBN 0-596-00364-1

Selected Articles in ''The Best Software Writing I'', Joel Spolsky ed. (2005) - ISBN 1-59059-500-9

* ''A Group is its Own Worst Enemy'' by Clay Shirky

* ''Group as User: Flaming and the Design of Social Software'' by Clay Shirky

''Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations'' (2008) - ISBN 978-1594201530

''Cognitive Surplus: Creativity and Generosity in a Connected Age'' (2010) - ISBN 978-1594202537

See also

Collective action

Footnotes

References

Clay Shirky's Bio

External links

Clay Shirky's homepage

Clay Shirky’s writings on the O'Reilly Network

Profile and videos at TED.com

Profile and talks at Fora.tv

''Socially Intelligent Computing'' A Dialogue with Daniel Goleman

Ontology is Overrated: Links, Tags, and Post-hoc Metadata - a presentation (mp3) from the O'Reilly Emerging Technology Conference held in San Diego, California, March 14–17, 2005.

- Colloquium @ NYU.

Clay Shirky at Web 2.0 Expo SF 2008

Video (and audio) of interview/discussion with Clay Shirky by Will Wilkinson on Bloggingheads.tv

Let a Thousand Flowers Bloom A talk about journalism and pay walls.

Category:American technology writers Category:1964 births Category:Living people Category:New York University faculty Category:Internet culture Category:Technology evangelists Category:Wikimedia Foundation Advisory Board members Category:Yale University alumni Category:Web 2.0

da:Clay Shirky de:Clay Shirky fr:Clay Shirky nl:Clay Shirky pt:Clay Shirky zh:克莱·舍基