Tsar (Tzar (preferred for historic reference), Czar, Car, or Csar Bulgarian: цар, Serbian: цар, Croatian: car, }}, ) is a title used to designate certain European Slavic monarchs or supreme rulers. As a system of government, it is known as Tsarism. The term is derived from the Latin word ''Caesar'', which meant "Emperor" in the European medieval sense of the term- a ruler who claims the same rank as a Roman emperor, with the approval of another emperor or a supreme ecclesiastical official (the Pope or the Ecumenical Patriarch).

Occasionally, the word could be used to designate other, secular, supreme rulers. In Russia and Bulgaria the imperial connotations of the term were blurred with time, due to the medieval translations of the Bible, and, by the 19th century, it had come to be viewed as an equivalent of King..

"Tsar" was the official title of the supreme and great ruler in the following states:

First Bulgarian Empire, in 913–1018

Second Bulgarian Empire, in 1185–1422

Serbian Empire, in 1346–1371

Tsardom of Russia, in 1547–1721 (replaced in 1721 by ''imperator'', but remained in common usage until 1917)

Tsardom of Bulgaria, in 1908–1946

The first ruler to adopt the title ''tsar'' was Simeon I of Bulgaria. Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the last Tsar of Bulgaria, is the last person to have borne the title Tsar as well as being the last surviving person to do so.

Meaning in Slavic languages

The title Tsar is derived from the Latin word for emperor, Caesar. In comparison to the corresponding Latin word "imperator", the Byzantine Greek term ''basileus'' was used differently depending on whether it was in a contemporary political context and in a historical or Biblical context. In the history of the Greek language, the word had originally meant something like "potentate", it had gradually approached the meaning of "king" in the Hellenistic Period, and it came to designate "emperor" after the inception in the Roman Empire. As a consequence, Byzantine sources continued to call the Biblical and ancient kings "basileus", even when that word had come to mean "emperor" when referring to contemporary monarchs (while it was never applied to Western European kings, whose title was transliterated from Latin "rex" as , or to other monarchs, for whom designations such as "leader", "chieftain" were used.)

As the Greek "basileus" was consistently rendered as "tsar" in Slavonic translations of Greek texts, the dual meaning was transferred into Church Slavonic. Thus, "tsar" was not only used as an equivalent of Latin "imperator" (in reference to the rulers of the Byzantine Empire, the Holy Roman Empire and to native rulers) but was also used to refer to Biblical rulers and ancient kings.

From this ambiguity, the development has moved in different directions in the different Slavic languages. Thus, the Bulgarian language and Russian language no longer use ''tsar'' as an equivalent of the term ''emperor''/''imperator'' as it exists in the West European (Latin) tradition. Currently, the term ''tsar'' refers to native sovereigns, ancient and Biblical rulers, as well as monarchs in fairy tales and the like. The title of ''king'' (Russian ''korol' '', Bulgarian ''kral'') is perceived as alien and is reserved for (West) European royalty (and, by extension, for those modern monarchs outside of Europe whose titles are translated as ''king'' in English, ''roi'' in French etc.). Foreign monarchs of imperial status, both inside and outside of Europe, ancient as well as modern, are generally called ''imperator'' (император), rather than ''tsar''.

In contrast, the Serbian, (along with the closely related Croatian language and Bosnian language) and Ukrainian language translates "''emperor''" (Latin ''imperator'') as ''tsar'' (''car'', цар) and not as ''imperator'', whereas the equivalent of ''king'' (''kralj'', краљ, король) is used to designate monarchs of non-imperial status, Serbian as well as foreign ancient rulers - just like Latin "''rex''". Biblical rulers in Serbian are called ''цар'' and in Croatian ''kralj''.

In the West Slavic languages and Slovene language, the use of the terms is identical to the one in English and German: a king is designated with one term (Czech ''král'', Slovak ''kráľ'', Polish ''król'', Slovene ''kralj''), an emperor is designated with another, derived from ''Caesar'' as in German (Czech ''císař'', Slovak ''cisár'', Polish ''cesarz'', Slovene ''cesar''; Croat ''cesar'' and Montenegrin ''ćesar'' fall into disuse in the last century), while the exotic term "tsar" (Czech, Slovene and Polish ''car'', Slovak ''cár'') is reserved for the Russian and Bulgarian rulers.

Bulgaria

The sainted Boris I is sometimes retrospectively referred to as tsar, because at his time Bulgaria was converted to Christianity. However, the title "tsar" (and its Byzantine Greek equivalent "basileus") was actually adopted and used for the first time by his son Simeon I, following a makeshift imperial coronation performed by the Patriarch of Constantinople in 913. After an attempt by the Byzantine Empire to revoke this major diplomatic concession and a decade of intensive warfare, the imperial title of the Bulgarian ruler was recognized by the Byzantine government in 924 and again at the formal conclusion of peace in 927. Since in Byzantine political theory there was place for only two emperors, Eastern and Western (as in the Late Roman Empire), the Bulgarian ruler was crowned basileus as "a spiritual son" of the Byzantian basileus.

Some of the earliest attested occurrences of the contraction "tsar" (''car' '') from "tsesar" (''cěsar' '') are found in the grave inscription of the ''chărgubilja'' (ichirgu-boil) Mostich, a contemporary of Simeon I and Peter I, from Preslav.

It has been hypothesized that Simeon's title was also recognized by a papal mission to Bulgaria in or shortly after 925, as a concession in exchange for a settlement in the Bulgarian-Croatian conflict or a possible attempt to return Bulgaria to union with Rome. Thus, in the later diplomatic correspondence conducted in 1199–1204 between the Bulgarian ruler Kaloyan and Pope Innocent III, Kaloyan — whose self-assumed Latin title was "imperator Bulgarorum et Blachorum" — claims that the imperial crowns of Simeon I, his son Peter I, and of Samuel were somehow derived from the Papacy. The Pope, however, only speaks of ''reges'', kings of Bulgaria in his replies, and eventually grants only that lesser title to Kaloyan, who nevertheless proceeds to thank the Pope for the "imperial title" conferred upon him.

The title, later augmented with epithets and titles such as ''autocrat'' to reflect current Byzantine practice, was used by all of Simeon's successors until the complete conquest of Bulgaria by the Ottoman Empire in 1422. In Latin sources the Emperor of Bulgaria is sometimes designated "Emperor of Zagora" (with variant spellings). Various additional epithets and descriptions apart, the official style read "Emperor and autocrat of all Bulgarians and Greeks".

During the five-century period of Ottoman rule in Bulgaria, the sultan was frequently referred to as "tsar". This may be related to the fact that he had claimed the legacy of the Byzantine Empire or to the fact that the sultan was called "Basileus" in medieval Greek.

After Bulgaria's liberation from the Ottomans in 1878, its new monarchs were at first ''autonomous prince'' (knjaz). With the declaration of full independence, Ferdinand I of Bulgaria adopted the traditional title "tsar" in 1908 and it was used until the abolition of the monarchy in 1946. However, these titles were not generally perceived as equivalents of "Emperor" any longer. In the Bulgarian as in the Greek vernacular, the meaning of the title had shifted (although Paisius' ''Slavonic-Bulgarian History'' (1760–1762) had still distinguished between the two concepts). Accordingly, Ferdinand and his successors, Boris III and Simeon II, used the title of "king" in English. In the same fashion, the modern rulers of Greece used the traditional title of ''basileus'' in Greek and the title of "king" or "roi" in English and French.

Kievan Rus'

The term "czar" was used once by Church officials of Kievan Rus' in the naming of Yaroslav the Wise of Kiev. This may be connected to Yaroslav's war against Byzantium and to his efforts to distance himself from Constantinople. However, other princes of Kievan Rus' never styled themselves as "czars". After the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders and the Mongol invasion of Rus' (1237–1240), the term "tsar" was applied by some people of Kievan Rus' to the Mongol (Tatar) overlords of the Rus' principalities.

Serbia

The title Tsar was also used in Serbia, but only by two monarchs — Stefan Uroš IV Dušan and Stefan Uroš V between 1345 and 1371. Earlier Serbian monarchs had used the royal title Kralj/Краљ (King) since 1077, which had been granted by the Papacy during an early union with the Western Church. In 1345, Stefan Uroš IV Dušan began to style himself "Emperor of Serbians and Greeks" (the Greek renderings read "''basileus'' and ''autokrator'' of Serbians and Romans"), and was crowned as such in Skopje on Easter (April 16) 1346 by the newly created Serbian patriarch, alongside with the patriarch and the autocephalous archbishop of Ohrid. On the same occasion, he had his wife Helena of Bulgaria crowned as empress and his son associated in power as king. When Dušan died in 1355, his son Stefan Uroš V became the next "emperor of Serbians and Greeks". The new emperor's uncle Simeon Uroš (Siniša) contested the succession and claimed the same titles as a dynast in Thessaly. After his death around 1370, he was succeeded in his claims by his son John Uroš, who retired to a monastery in about 1373.

With the extinction of Nemanjić dynasty in Serbia in 1371, the imperial title became obsolete (though it was retained by Stefan Uroš IV's widow Elena of Bulgaria until her death in 1376/1377). The royal title was preserved by Vukašin Mrnjavčević, a Serbian ruler in Macedonia, who had been associated by Stefan Uroš Several other Serbian rulers are known traditionally as tsars, although they realistically cannot be called so. They include Tsar Lazar, Tsar Jovan Nenad and Tsar Stephen the Little.

During the five-century period of Ottoman rule in Serbia, the sultan was frequently referred to as "car", for instance in South Slavic oral tradition.

When Serbia, which had emerged as an autonomous principality after a long period of Ottoman domination, became an independent kingdom, its prince, ''knjaz'', adopted the traditional title of king, ''kralj''. The King's full style was, between 6 March 1882 and 1 December 1918 (New Style): ''По милости Божијој и вољи народној краљ Србије'' "By the grace of God and the will of the people, King of Serbia".

Russia

The first Russian ruler to openly break with the khan of the Golden Horde, Mikhail of Tver, assumed the title of "Basileus of Rus" and "czar".

Following his assertion of independence from the khan and perhaps also his marriage to an heiress of the Byzantine Empire, "Veliki Kniaz" Ivan III of Muscovy started to use the title of tsar regularly in diplomatic relations with the West. From about 1480, he is designated as "imperator" in his Latin correspondence, as "keyser" in his correspondence with the Swedish regent, as "kejser" in his correspondence with the Danish king, Teutonic Knights, and the Hanseatic League. Ivan's son Vasily III continued using these titles, as his Latin letters to Clement VII testify: "Magnus Dux Basilius, Dei gratia Imperator et Dominator totius Russiae, nec non Magnus Dux Woldomeriae", etc. (In the Russian version of the letter, "imperator" corresponds to "tsar"). Herberstein correctly observed that the titles of "kaiser" and "imperator" were attempts to render the Russian term "tsar" into German and Latin, respectively.

This was related to Russia's growing ambitions to become an Orthodox "Third Rome", after Constantinople had fallen. The Muscovite ruler was recognized as an emperor by Maximilian I, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in 1514. However, the first Russian ruler to be formally crowned as "tsar of all Russia" was Ivan IV, until then known as Grand Prince of all Russia (1547). Some foreign ambassadors — namely, Herberstein (in 1516 and 1525), Daniel Printz a Buchau (in 1576 and 1578) and Just Juel (in 1709) — indicated that the word "tsar" should not be translated as "emperor", because it is applied by Russians to David, Solomon and other Biblical kings, which are simple "reges". On the other hand, Jacques Margeret, a bodyguard of False Demetrius I, argues that the title of "tsar" is more honorable for Muscovites than "kaiser" or "king" exactly because it was God and not some earthly potentate who ordained to apply it to David, Solomon, and other kings of Israel. Samuel Collins, a court physician to Tsar Alexis in 1659-66, styled the latter "Great Emperour", commenting that "as for the word ''Czar'', it has so near relation to ''Cesar''... that it may well be granted to signifie Emperour. The Russians would have it to be an higher Title than King, and yet they call David ''Czar'', and our kings, ''Kirrols'', probably from Carolus Quintus, whose history they have among them".

In short, the Westerners were at a loss as to how the term "tsar" should be translated properly. In 1670, Pope Clement X expressed doubts that it would be appropriate for him to address Alexis as "tsar", because the word is "barbarian" and because it stands for an "emperor", whereas there is only one emperor in the Christian world and he does not reside in Moscow. Reviewing the matter, abbot Scarlati opined that the term is not translatable and therefore may be used by the Pope without any harm. Paul Menesius, the Russian envoy in Vatican, seconded Scarlati's opinion by saying that there is no adequate Latin translation for "tsar", as there is no translation for "shah" or "sultan". In order to avoid such difficulties of translation and to assert his imperial ambitions more clearly, an edict of Peter I the Great decreed that the Latin-based title ''imperator'' should be used instead of "tsar" (1721).

The title ''tsar'' remained in common usage, and also officially as the designator of various titles signifying rule over various states absorbed by the Muscovite monarchy (such as the former Tatar khanates and the Georgian Orthodox kingdom). In the 18th century, it was increasingly viewed as inferior to "emperor" or highlighting the oriental side of the term. Upon annexing Crimea in 1783, Catherine the Great adopted the hellenicized title of "Tsaritsa of Tauric Chersonesos", rather than "Tsaritsa of the Crimea", as should have been expected. By 1815, when a large part of Poland was annexed, the title had clearly come to be interpreted in Russia as the equivalent of Polish Król "king", and the Russian emperor assumed the title "tsar of Poland", (and the puppet Kingdom of Poland was officially called ''Królewstwo Polskie'' in Polish and ''Царство Польское'' - ''Tsardom of Poland'' - in Russian) (see also Full style of Russian Sovereigns below).

Since the word "tsar" remained the popular designation of the Russian ruler despite the official change of style, its transliteration of this title in foreign languages such as English is commonly used also, in fact chiefly, for the Russian Emperors up to 1917.

The Tsar was also commonly called ''батюшка'', which means "Father", a term of affectionate respect, especially by the lower classes. Some people translate ''батюшка'' as "Little Father"; the adjective "Little" was meant to contrast with the Heavenly "Big" Father, i.e. God.

=== Full style of Russian Sovereigns === The full title of Russian emperors started with By the Grace of God, Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias (Божию Милостию, Император и Самодержец Всероссийский [''Božiju Milostiju, Imperator i Samoderžec Vserossiiskiy'']) and went further to list all ruled territories. For example, according to the article 59 of the Russian Constitution of April 23, 1906, "the full title of His Imperial Majesty is as follows: We, ------ by the grace of God, Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias, of Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauric Chersonesos, Tsar of Georgia, Lord of Pskov, and Grand Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia, and Finland, Prince of Estonia, Livonia, Courland and Semigalia, Samogitia, Belostok, Karelia, Tver, Yugra, Perm, Vyatka, Bulgaria and other territories; Lord and Grand Duke of Nizhni Novgorod, Sovereign of Chernigov, Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Beloozero, Udoria, Obdoria, Kondia, Vitebsk, Mstislavl, and all northern territories; Sovereign of Iveria, Kartalinia, and the Kabardinian lands and Armenian territories - hereditary Lord and Ruler of the Circassians and Mountain Princes and others; Lord of Turkestan, Heir of Norway, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Stormarn, Dithmarschen, Oldenburg, and so forth, and so forth, and so forth."

For example, Nicholas II of Russia (1 November 1894 - 15 March 1917) was titled as follows (notice the archaic Cyrillic spelling): :Божію Поспѣшествующею Милостію: МЫ, НИКОЛАЙ ВТОРЫЙ ИМПЕРАТОРЪ и САМОДЕРЖЕЦЪ ВСЕРОССІЙСКІЙ :Московскій, Кіевскій, Владимірскій, Новгородскій, :Царь Казанскій, Царь Астраханскій, Царь Польскій, Царь Сибирскій, Царь Херсонеса Таврическаго, Царь Грузинскій, :Государь Псковскій, и :Великій Князь Смоленскій, Литовскій, Волынскій, Подольскій и Финляндскій; :Князь Эстляндскій, Лифляндскій, Курляндскій и Семигальскій, Самогитскій, Бѣлостокский, Корельскій, :Тверскій, Югорскій, Пермскій, Вятскій, Болгарскій и иныхъ; :Государь и Великій Князь Новагорода низовскія земли, Черниговскій, Рязанскій, Полотскій, :Ростовскій, Ярославскій, Бѣлозерскій, Удорскій, Обдорскій, Кондійскій, Витебскій, Мстиславскій и :всея Сѣверныя страны Повелитель; и :Государь Иверскія, Карталинскія и Кабардинскія земли и области Арменскія; :Черкасскихъ и Горскихъ Князей и иныхъ Наслѣдный Государь и Обладатель; :Государь Туркестанскій; :Наслѣдникъ Норвежскій, :Герцогъ Шлезвигъ-Голстинскій, Стормарнскій, Дитмарсенскій и Ольденбургскій, и прочая, и прочая, и прочая. ''Russian Latin transliteration'' :Bozhiyu Pospeshestvuyusheyu Milostiju: :MY, NIKOLAI VTOR'YI IMPERATOR I SAMODERSHETS VSEROSSIISKIY :Moskovski, Kievskii, Vladimirskiy, Novogorodskiy, :Tsar Kazanskiy, Tsar Astrakhanskiy, Tsar Pol'ski, Tsar Sibirski, Tsar Khersonesa Tavricheskago, Tsar Gruzinskiy, :Gosudar' Pskovskiy, i Velikiy Knyaz' Smolenskiy, Litovskiy, Volynskiy, Podol'skiy i Finlyandskiy, :Knyaz' Estlyandskiy, Liflyandskiy, Kurlyandskiy i Semigal'skiy, Samogitskiy, Belostokskiy, Korel'skiy, :Tverskiy, Yugorskiy, Permskiy, Vyatskiy, Bolgarskiy i inykh, :Gosudar' i Velikiy Knyaz' Novagoroda nizovskiya zemli, Chernigovskiy, Ryazanskiy, Polotskiy, :Rostovskiy, Yarolslavskiy, Belozerskiy, Udorskiy, Obdorskiy, Kondiyskiy, Vitebskiy, Mstislavski i :vseya Severnyia strany Povelitel', i :Gosudar' Iverskiya, Kartalinskiya i Kabardinskiya zemli i oblasti Armenskiya, :Cherkasskikh i Gorskikh Knyazei i inykh Nasledniy Gosudar' i Obladatel', :Gosudar' Turkestanskiy; :Naslednik Norvezhskiy, :Gertsog Shlezvig-Golstinskiy, Stormarnskiy, Ditmarsenskiy i Ol'denburgskiy, i prochaya, i prochaya, i prochaya.

The Emperor's subsidiary title of Tsar of ''Kazan'' proclaimed the chief Orthodox dynasty as successor in law to the mighty Islamic khanate of Kazan, not maintaining its 'heathen' (khan) title (as the Ottoman Great Sultans did in several cases), but christening it. It should also be noted that Khans of Kazan were mentioned in Russian chronicles such as Kazan Chronicle as ''Tsars of Kazan''.

The Emperor's subsidiary title of Tsar of ''Siberia'' refers to the Tatar Khanate of Sibiria, easily subdued in the early stages of the exploration and annexation of the larger eponymous region, most of it before inhabited by nomadic tribal people without a state in the European sense. The subsidiary title of Tsar in chief of Transcausasian ''Georgia'' is the continuation of a royal style of a native dynasty, that had as such been recognized by Russia. The subsidiary title of Tsar of Poland demonstrates the Russian Emperors' rule over the legally separate (but actually subordinate) Polish Kingdom, nominally in personal union with Russia, established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 (hence also called "Congress Poland"), in a sense reviving the royal style of the pre-existent national kingdom of Poland. Internationally and in Poland, the tsars were referred to as Kings (''królowie'') of Poland.

In some cases, defined by the Code of Laws, the Abbreviated Imperial Title was used: :"We, ------ by the grace of God, Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias, of Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauric Chersonesos, Tsar of Georgia, Lord of Pskov, and Grand Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia, and Finland, and so forth, and so forth, and so forth."

In other cases, also defined by the Code of Laws, the Short Imperial Title was used: :"We, ------ by the grace of God, Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias, Tsar of Poland, Grand Duke of Finland, and so forth, and so forth, and so forth."

Titles in the Russian Royal/Imperial family

Tsaritsa (царица) is the term used for a Queen, though in English contexts this seems invariably to be altered to tsarina (since 1717, from Italian ''czarina'', from German ''Zarin''). In Imperial Russia, the official title was Empress (Императрица). Tsaritsa (Empress) could be either the ruler herself or the wife (Empress consort) of the tsar. The title of tsaritsa is used in the same way in Bulgaria and Serbia.

Tsesarevich (Цесаревич) is the term for a male heir apparent, the full title was Heir Tsesarevich ("Naslednik Tsesarevich", Наследник Цесаревич), informally abbreviated in Russia to The Heir ("Naslednik") (capitalized).

Tsarevich (царевич) was the term for the younger sons and grandsons of a Tsar or Tsaritsa prior to 1721. In older times the term was used in place of "Tsesarevich" (Цесаревич). After 1721 a son who was not an heir was formally called Velikii Kniaz (Великий Князь) (Grand Duke or Grand Prince). The latter title was also used for grandsons (through male lines).

Tsarevna (царевна) was the term for a daughter and a granddaughter of a Tsar or Tsaritsa prior to 1721. After 1721, the official title was Velikaya Kniaginya (Великая Княгиня), translated as ''Grand Duchess'' or ''Grand Princess''.

See also Grand Duchess for more details on the ''Velikaya Kniaginya'' title.

Tsesarevna (Цесаревна) was the wife of the Tsesarevich.

Metaphorical uses

Like many lofty titles, e.g. Mogul, Tsar or Czar has been used as a metaphor for positions of high authority, in English, since 1866 (referring to U.S. President Andrew Johnson), with a connotation of dictatorial powers and style, fitting since "Autocrat" was an official title of the Russian Emperor (informally referred to as 'the Tsar'). Similarly, Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed was called "Czar Reed" for his dictatorial control of the House of Representatives in the 1880s and 1890s.

In the United States the title "czar" is a slang term for certain high-level civil servants, such as the "drug czar" for the director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy, "terrorism czar" for a Presidential advisor on terrorism policy, "cybersecurity czar" for the highest-ranking Department of Homeland Security official on computer security and information security policy, and "war czar" to oversee the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. More specifically, a czar refers to a sub-cabinet level advisor within the executive branch of the U.S. government. One of the earliest known usages of the term was for Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis, who was named commissioner of baseball, with broad powers to clean up the sport after it had been dirtied by the Black Sox scandal of 1919.

See also

List of Bulgarian monarchs

List of Serbian monarchs

Tsaritsa

Tsesarevich

References

Bibliography

''Michael and Natasha, The Life and love of the Last Tsar of Russia'', Rosemary & Donald Crawford, Weidenfeld & Nicholson, London 1997. ISBN 0 297 81836 8

George Ostrogorsky, "Avtokrator i samodržac", ''Glas Srpske kraljevske akadamije'' CLXIV, Drugi razdred 84 (1935), 95-187

John V.A. Fine, Jr., ''The Early Medieval Balkans'', Ann Arbor, 1983

John V.A. Fine, Jr., ''The Late Medieval Balkans'', Ann Arbor, 1987

Robert O. Crummey, ''The Formation of Muscovy 1304–1613'', New York, 1987

David Warnes, ''Chronicle of the Russian Tsars'', London, 1999

Matthew Lang (Editor), '' The Chronicle - $10 Very Cheap'', Sydney, 2009/10

Notes

External links

Detailed List of Roman and Byzantine Rulers

Detailed List of Bulgarian Rulers

Detailed List of Russian Rulers

Detailed List of Serbian Rulers

Detailed List of Georgian Rulers

The entry on ''tsar'' in the Eleventh Edition of Encyclopædia Britannica (1911)

EtymOnline

WorldStatesmen- see each present country

Category:Heads of state Category:Russian Empire Category:Royal titles Category:Noble titles Category:Russian leaders Category:Russian loanwords Category:Slavic titles Category:Titles of national or ethnic leadership Category:Bulgarian noble titles Category:History of Bulgaria Category:Bulgarian Empire Category:Bulgarian loanwords

af:Tsaar ast:Zar az:Çar be:Цар bs:Car bg:Цар ca:Tsar cs:Car da:Zar de:Zar et:Tsaar el:Τσάρος es:Zar eo:Caro eu:Tsar fa:تزار fr:Tsar fy:Tsaar gd:Tsar gl:Tsar ko:차르 hy:Ցար hr:Car io:Caro id:Tsar it:Zar he:צאר jv:Tsar ka:ცარი sw:Tsar ku:Çar la:Tzar lv:Cars lt:Caras hu:Cár mk:Цар mr:झार arz:تسار ms:Tsar nl:Tsaar ja:ツァーリ no:Tsar nn:Tsar pnb:زار روس pl:Car pt:Tsar ro:Țar ru:Царь sq:Cari scn:Zar simple:Tsar sk:Cár sl:Car sr:Цар fi:Tsaari sv:Tsar tl:Tsar th:ซาร์ tr:Çar uk:Цар ur:زار روس vi:Sa hoàng zh-yue:沙皇 zh:沙皇

type	monarch
name	Nicholas II
imgw	200px
succession	Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias
reign	– 15 March 1917 (22 years, 134 days)
coronation
cor-type	Coronation
predecessor	Alexander III
successor	Office abolished''De facto'' :Georgy Lvov (chairman of the provisional government)
spouse	Alix of Hesse
issue	Grand Duchess Olga NikolaevnaGrand Duchess Tatiana NikolaevnaGrand Duchess Maria NikolaevnaGrand Duchess Anastasia NikolaevnaTsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich
full name	Nicholas Alexandrovich Romanov
house	House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov
father	Alexander III of Russia
mother	Maria Feodorovna(Dagmar of Denmark)
birth date
birth place	Tsarskoye Selo, Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire, Alexander Palace
death date	May 18, 1868
death place	Yekaterinburg, Russian SFSR
burial date	17 July 1998
burial place	Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
signature	Nicholas II Signature.svg
religion	Eastern Orthodox }}

Nicholas II ( ) ( – 17 July 1918) was the last Emperor of Russia, Grand Prince of Finland, and titular King of Poland. His official title was Nicholas II, Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias and he is known as Saint Nicholas the Passion-Bearer by the Russian Orthodox Church.

Nicholas II ruled from 1894 until his abdication on 15 March 1917. His reign saw Imperial Russia go from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to economic and military collapse. Critics nicknamed him Bloody Nicholas because of the Khodynka Tragedy, Bloody Sunday, the anti-Semitic pogroms, his execution of political opponents, and his pursuit of military campaigns on a hitherto unprecendented scale. Under his rule, Russia was defeated in the Russo-Japanese War, including the almost total annihilation of the Russian fleet at the Battle of Tsushima. As head of state, he approved the Russian mobilization of August 1914, which marked the first fatal step into World War I, a war in which 3.3 million Russians would be killed, thus leading to the demise of the Romanov dynasty less than three years later.

Nicholas II abdicated following the February Revolution of 1917 during which he and his family were imprisoned first in the Alexander Palace at Tsarskoye Selo, then later in the Governor's Mansion in Tobolsk, and finally at the Ipatiev House in Yekaterinburg. Nicholas II, his wife, his son, his four daughters, the family's medical doctor, the Tsar's valet, the Empress' lady-in-waiting, and the family's cook were murdered in the same room by the Bolsheviks on the night of 16/17 July 1918. This led to the canonization of Nicholas II, his wife the Empress and their children as martyrs by various groups tied to the Russian Orthodox Church within Russia and, prominently, outside Russia.

Family background

Nicholas was the son of Emperor Alexander III and Empress Maria Feodorovna of Russia (formerly "Princess Dagmar of Denmark"). His paternal grandparents were Emperor Alexander II and Empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, (born "Princess Marie of Hesse"). His maternal grandparents were King Christian IX of Denmark and Princess Louise of Hesse-Kassel.

Nicholas often referred to his father nostalgically in letters after Alexander's death in 1894. However, as a child, he was jealous of his father's physical strength, demonstrated when his father lifted a 27 kilo stone with one hand. He was also very close to his mother, as it is revealed in their published letters to each other. Nicholas had three younger brothers (Alexander [1869–1870], George [1871–1899] and Michael [1878–1918]) and two younger sisters (Xenia [1875-1960] and Olga [1882-1960]).

Maternally, Nicholas was the nephew of several monarchs, including George I of Greece, Frederick VIII of Denmark, Alexandra, Queen consort of the United Kingdom and the Crown Princess of Hanover.

Nicholas, his wife Alexandra, and Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany were all first cousins of King George V of the United Kingdom. thumb|left|upright|alt=Two bearded men of identical height wear military dress uniforms emblazoned with medals and stand side-by-side|King George V (right) with his first cousin Tsar Nicholas II, Berlin, 1913. Note the close physical resemblance between the two monarchs. Nicholas' mother was the sister of British Queen Alexandra, the mother of George V. The Empress Alexandra was the daughter of Princess Alice, herself a daughter of Queen Victoria, thus making Edward VII her uncle, and cousin to the Emperor Wilhelm, on her mother's side; and equally a direct descendant of Queen Victoria. The Emperor Wilhelm was a son of Queen Victoria's eldest daughter, also named Victoria, who married Crown Prince Frederick of Germany. Nicholas and Wilhelm were not each other's first cousin, but they were second cousins, once removed, as each descended from Frederick William III, King of Prussia, as well as third cousins, as they were both great-great-grandsons of Tsar Paul I of Russia.

Tsarevich

On 13 March 1881, following the assassination of his grandfather, Tsar Alexander II, Nicholas became Tsarevich and his father became Tsar Alexander III. Nicholas and other family members witnessed Alexander II's death because they were staying at the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg where he was brought after being attacked. For security reasons, the new Tsar and his family relocated their primary residence to the Gatchina Palace outside the city.

A long trip for educational purposes became an important part of training for the members of the Russian imperial house. In 1890, Tsar Alexander III decided to establish the Trans-Siberian Railway. His heir, Tsarevich Nicholas, took part in the opening ceremony, and from there he was obliged to make a journey around the world, which became known as the Eastern Journey where he survived an assassination attempt at Otsu in Japan. Although Nicholas attended meetings of the Imperial Council, his obligations were limited until he acceded to the throne, which was not expected for many years, since his father was only 45.

While he was Tsarevich, Nicholas had an affair with the ballet dancer Mathilde Kschessinska. Against his parents' initial wishes, Nicholas was determined to marry Princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt, the fourth daughter of Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, second eldest daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. His parents intended a more politically beneficial arrangement with Princess Hélène, daughter of Philippe, comte de Paris, pretender to the French throne, hoping to cement Russia's new alliance with France, but eventually yielded to their son's wishes.

Engagement, accession and marriage

Nicholas became engaged to Alix of Hesse in April 1894. Alix was hesitant to accept the engagement due to the requirement that she convert from Lutheranism to Russian Orthodoxy and renounce her former faith. An exception was made for Alix where she could convert without renouncing her Lutheran faith. Nicholas and Alix became formally engaged on 8 April 1894. Alix converted to Orthodoxy in November 1894 and took the name Alexandra Fedorovna, in an attempt to be more acceptable to the Russian people.

Nicholas took the throne on 1 November 1894 at the age of 26 following Alexander III's unexpected death. Throughout 1894, Alexander's health rapidly declined and at 49, he died of kidney disease.

Nicholas did not have as much political training or imperial experience as might have been desired. It is said that Nicholas felt unprepared for the duties of the crown, asking his cousin Alexander, "What is going to happen to me and all of Russia?" Finance Minister Sergei Witte, however, recognized the need to train Nicholas early, suggesting to Alexander that Nicholas act as chairman of the Siberian Railway Committee. Alexander argued that Nicholas was not mature enough to take on serious responsibilities, to which Witte replied that if he was not introduced to state affairs Nicholas would never be ready to understand them. Nicholas also acted as chairman of the Special Committee on Famine Relief, established after the devastating famines and droughts of 1891–1892, and he served on the Finance Committee and State Military Council before his coronation. Perhaps underprepared and unskilled, Nicholas was not altogether untrained for his duties as Tsar. Throughout his reign, Nicholas chose to maintain the conservative policies favored by his father. While Alexander had concentrated on the formulation of general policy, Nicholas devoted much more attention to the details of administration.

Nicholas and Alix's wedding was originally scheduled for the spring of 1895, but it was moved forward at Nicholas' insistence. Staggering under the weight of his new office, he had no intention of allowing the one person who gave him confidence to leave his side. The wedding took place on 26 November 1894. Alexandra wore the traditional dress of Romanov brides, and Nicholas a hussar's uniform. Nicholas and Alexandra, each holding a lighted candle, faced the palace priest; a few minutes before one in the afternoon, they were married.

Reign

Despite a visit to Great Britain before his accession, where he observed the House of Commons in debate and seemed impressed by the machinery of democracy, Nicholas turned his back on any notion of giving away any power to elected representatives in Russia. Shortly after he came to the throne, a deputation of peasants and workers from various towns' local assemblies (zemstvos) came to the Winter Palace proposing court reforms, such as the adoption of a constitutional monarchy, and reform that would improve the political and social life of the peasantry. Although the addresses they had sent in beforehand were couched in mild and loyal terms, Nicholas was angry and ignored advice from an Imperial Family Council by saying to them: "... it has come to my knowledge that during the last months there have been heard in some assemblies of the zemstvos the voices of those who have indulged in a senseless dream that the zemstvos be called upon to participate in the government of the country. I want everyone to know that I will devote all my strength to maintain, for the good of the whole nation, the principle of absolute autocracy, as firmly and as strongly as did my late lamented father."

On 14 May 1896, Nicholas' formal coronation as Tsar was held in Uspensky Cathedral located within the Kremlin. In celebration on 18 May 1896, a large festival with food, free beer and souvenirs was held in Khodynka Field outside Moscow. Khodynka was chosen as the location as it was believed to be the sacred centre of the Russian Empire and would therefore demonstrate Nicholas' legitimacy as Tsar and ties to the old autocracy. Khodynka was also used as a military training ground and the field was uneven with trenches. When food and drink were handed out, the crowd rushed to get their share and individuals were tripped and trampled. Of the approximate 100,000 in attendance, it is estimated that 1,389 individuals died and roughly 1,300 were injured. The Khodynka Tragedy was seen as a bad omen and in addition to his conservative policies, Nicholas found gaining popular trust difficult from the beginning of his reign.

The first years of his reign saw little more than continuation and development of the policy pursued by Alexander III. Nicholas allotted money for the All-Russia exhibition of 1896. In 1897 restoration of gold standard by Sergei Witte, Minister of Finance, completed the series of financial reforms, initiated fifteen years earlier. By 1902, the Trans-Siberian Railway was nearly completed; this helped the Russians trade in the Far East but the railway still required huge amounts of work. In foreign relations, Nicholas followed policies of his father, strengthening the Franco-Russian Alliance and pursuing a policy of general European pacification, which culminated in the famous Hague peace conference. This conference, suggested and promoted by Nicholas II, was convened with the view of terminating the arms race, and setting up machinery for the peaceful settlement of international disputes. The results of the conference were less than expected, because of the mutual distrust existing between great powers. Still, the Hague conventions were among the first formal statements of the laws of war.

He was Colonel in Chief of the Royal Scots Greys from 1894 until his death. On becoming Colonel in Chief he presented the Regiment with a white bearskin, now worn by the bass drummer of the Pipes and Drums of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards. The Imperial Russian anthem is still played at dinner nights in the Officers' Mess, where there is still a portrait of the Tsar in Scots Greys uniform. Since his murder the Regiment has worn a black backing behind its capbadge to mourn his death.

Russo-Japanese War

A clash between Russia and Japan was almost inevitable by the turn of the 20th century. Russia had expanded in the East, and the growth of her settlement and territorial ambitions, as her southward path to the Balkans was frustrated, conflicted with Japan's own territorial ambitions on the Chinese and Asian mainland. War began in 1904 with a surprise Japanese attack on the Russian fleet in Port Arthur, without formal declaration of war. The Russian Baltic fleet traversed the world to balance power in the East, but after many misadventures on the way, was almost annihilated by the Japanese in the Battle of the Tsushima Strait. On land the Russian army experienced logistical problems. While commands and supplies came from St. Petersburg, combat took place in east Asian ports with only the Trans-Siberian Railway for transport of supplies as well as troops both ways. The track between St. Petersburg and Port Arthur was one-way, with no track around Lake Baikal, allowing only gradual build-up of the forces on the front. Besieged Port Arthur fell to the Japanese, after nine months of resistance. In mid-1905, Nicholas II accepted American mediation, appointing Sergei Witte chief plenipotentiary for the peace talks. War was ended by the Treaty of Portsmouth.

Nicholas's stance on the war was something that baffled many. Nicholas approached the war with confidence and saw it as an opportunity to raise Russian morale and patriotism, paying little attention to the finances of a long-distance war. Shortly before the Japanese attack on Port Arthur, Nicholas held strong to the belief that there would be no war. Despite the onset of the war and the many defeats Russia suffered, Nicholas still believed in, and expected, a final victory. Many people took the Tsar's confidence and stubbornness for indifference; believing him to be completely impervious. As Russia continued to face defeat by the Japanese, the call for peace grew. Nicholas's own mother, as well as his cousin, Kaiser Wilhelm, urged Nicholas to open peace negotiations. Despite the efforts for peace, Nicholas remained evasive. It was not until 27–28 March and the annihilation of the Russian fleet by the Japanese, that Nicholas finally decided to pursue peace.

Anti-Jewish pogroms of 1903–1906

The Kishinev newspaper ''Bessarabets'', which published anti-Jewish materials, received funds from Viacheslav Plehve, Minister of the Interior. These publications served to fuel the Kishinev pogrom.

1905 Revolution

With the defeat of Russia by a non-Western power, the prestige and power of the government and the authority of the autocratic empire was brought down significantly. Defeat was a severe blow and the Imperial government collapsed, with the ensuing revolutionary outbreaks of 1905–1906. In hope to frighten any further contradiction many demonstrators were shot in front of the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg; the Emperor's Uncle, Grand Duke Sergei, was killed by a revolutionary's bomb in Moscow as he left the Kremlin. The Black Sea Fleet mutinied, and a railway strike developed into a general strike which paralyzed the country. Tsar Nicholas II, who was taken by surprise by the events, mixed his anger with bewilderment. He wrote to his mother after months of disorder:

''"It makes me sick to read the news! Nothing but strikes in schools and factories, murdered policemen, Cossacks and soldiers, riots, disorder, mutinies. But the ministers, instead of acting with quick decision, only assemble in council like a lot of frightened hens and cackle about providing united ministerial action... ominous quiet days began, quiet indeed because there was complete order in the streets, but at the same time everybody knew that something was going to happen — the troops were waiting for the signal, but the other side would not begin. One had the same feeling, as before a thunderstorm in summer! Everybody was on edge and extremely nervous and of course, that sort of strain could not go on for long.... We are in the midst of a revolution with an administrative apparatus entirely disorganized, and in this lies the main danger."''

Bloody Sunday

A few days prior to the Bloody Sunday (9 (22) January 1905), the leader of the initiative himself, a priest named George Gapon, informed the government of the forthcoming procession to the Winter Palace to hand a petition to the Tsar. On the evening before, on Saturday, 8 (21), the ministers convened to consider the situation. There was never any thought that the Tsar, who had left the capital for Tsarskoye Selo on the advice of the ministers would actually be asked to meet Gapon; the suggestion that some other member of the Imperial family receive the petition was rejected. Finally informed by the Prefect of Police that he lacked the men to pluck Gapon from among his followers and place him under arrest, the newly appointed Minister of the Interior, Prince Sviatopolk-Mirsky, and his colleagues decided to bring additional troops into the city for control. That evening Nicholas wrote in his diary, "Troops have been brought from the outskirts to reinforce the garrison. Up to now the workers have been calm. Their number is estimated at 120,000. At the head of their union is a kind of socialist priest named Gapon. Mirsky came this evening to present his report on the measures taken."

On Sunday, 9 (22) January 1905, Gapon began his march. Locking arms, the workers marched peacefully through the streets. Some carried religious icons and banners, as well as national flags and portraits of the Tsar. As they walked they sang religious hymns and the Imperial anthem, 'God Save The Tsar'. At 2PM all of the converging processions were scheduled to arrive at the Winter Palace. There was no single confrontation with the troops. Throughout the city, at bridges on strategic boulevards, the marchers found their way blocked by lines of infantry, backed by Cossacks and Hussars; and the soldiers opened fire on the crowd. The official number of victims was 92 dead and several hundred wounded. Gapon vanished and the other leaders of the march were seized. Expelled from the capital, they circulated through the empire, increasing the casualties. As bullets riddled their icons, their banners and their portraits of Nicholas, the people shrieked, "The Tsar will not help us!" Outside Russia, the future British Labour Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald attacked the Tsar, calling him a "blood-stained creature and a common murderer".

That evening Nicholas wrote in his diary: {{Bquote|«Bad day! In St. Petersburg there were serious disturbances due to the desire of workers to get to the Winter Palace. The troops had to shoot in different places of the city, there were many dead and wounded. Oh, how painful and hard! »}}

In Russian: {{Bquote|«Тяжёлый день! В Петербурге произошли серьёзные беспорядки вследствие желания рабочих дойти до Зимнего дворца. Войска должны были стрелять в разных местах города, было много убитых и раненых. Господи, как больно и тяжело!» }}

Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna (Nicholas's sister) wrote afterwards:

From his hiding place, Gapon issued a letter. He stated, "Nicholas Romanov, formerly Tsar and at present soul-murderer of the Russian empire. The innocent blood of workers, their wives and children lies forever between you and the Russian people ... May all the blood which must be spilled fall upon you, you Hangman. I call upon all the socialist parties of Russia to come to an immediate agreement among themselves and bring an armed uprising against Tsarism."

Relationship with the Duma

Under pressure from the attempted 1905 Russian Revolution, on 5 August of that year Nicholas II issued a manifesto about the convocation of the State Duma, initially thought to be an advisory organ. Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna, the younger sister of Nicholas II, wrote, "There was such gloom at Tsarskoye Selo. I did not understand anything about politics. I just felt everything was going wrong with the country and all of us. The October Constitution did not seem to satisfy anyone. I went with my mother to the first Duma. I remember the large group of deputies from among peasants and factory people. The peasants looked sullen. But the workmen were worse: they looked as though they hated us. I remember the distress in Alicky's eyes." Minister of the Court Count Fredericks commented, "The Deputies, they give one the impression of a gang of criminals who are only waiting for the signal to throw themselves upon the ministers and cut their throats. I will never again set foot among those people." The Dowager Empress noticed "incomprehensible hatred."

In the October Manifesto, the Tsar pledged to introduce basic civil liberties, provide for broad participation in the State Duma, and endow the Duma with legislative and oversight powers. However, determined to preserve autocracy even in the context of reform, he restricted the Duma's authority in many ways—not least of which was an absence of parliamentary control over the appointment or dismissal of cabinet ministers. Nicholas' relations with the Duma were not good. The First Duma, with a majority of Kadets, almost immediately came into conflict with him. Scarcely had the 524 members sat down at the Tauride Palace when they formulated an 'Address to the Throne'. It demanded universal suffrage, radical land reform, the release of all political prisoners and the dismissal of ministers appointed by the Tsar in favour of ministers acceptable to the Duma. Although Nicholas initially had a good relationship with his prime minister, Sergei Witte, Alexandra distrusted him because he had instigated an investigation of Grigori Rasputin, and as the political situation deteriorated, Nicholas dissolved the Duma. The Duma was populated with radicals, many of whom wished to push through legislation that would abolish private property ownership, among other things. Witte, unable to grasp the seemingly insurmountable problems of reforming Russia and the monarchy, wrote to Nicholas on 14 April 1906 resigning his office (however, other accounts have said that Witte was forced to resign by the Emperor). Nicholas was not ungracious to Witte and an Imperial Rescript was published on 22 April creating Witte a Knight of the Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky, with diamonds (the last two words were written in the Emperor's own hand, followed by "I remain unalterably well-disposed to you and sincerely grateful, for ever more Nicholas.").

A second Duma met for the first time in February 1907. The leftist parties—including the Social Democrats and the Social Revolutionaries, who had boycotted the First Duma—had won 200 seats in the Second, more than a third of the membership. Again Nicholas waited impatiently to rid himself of the Duma. In two letters to his mother he let his bitterness flow, "A grotesque deputation is coming from England to see liberal members of the Duma. Uncle Bertie informed us that they were very sorry but were unable to take action to stop their coming. Their famous 'liberty', of course. How angry they would be if a deputation went from us to the Irish to wish them success in their struggle against their government." A little while later Nicholas wrote, "All would be well if everything said in the Duma remained within its walls. Every word spoken, however, comes out in the next day's papers which are avidly read by everyone. In many places the populace is getting restive again. They begin to talk about land once more and are waiting to see what the Duma is going to say on the question. I am getting telegrams from everywhere, petitioning me to order a dissolution, but it is too early for that. One has to let them do something manifestly stupid or mean and then — slap! And they are gone!"

After the Second Duma resulted in similar problems, the new prime minister Pyotr Stolypin (whom Witte described as 'reactionary') unilaterally dissolved it, and changed the electoral laws to allow for future Dumas to have a more conservative content, and to be dominated by the liberal-conservative Octobrist Party of Alexander Guchkov. Stolypin, a skillful politician, had ambitious plans for reform. These included making loans available to the lower classes to enable them to buy land, with the intent of forming a farming class loyal to the crown. Nevertheless, when the Duma remained hostile, Stolypin had no qualms about invoking Article 87 of the Fundamental Laws, which empowered the Tsar to issue 'urgent and extraordinary' emergency decrees 'during the recess of the State Duma'. Stolypin's most famous legislative act, the change in peasant land tenure, was promulgated under Article 87.

The third Duma remained an independent body. This time the members proceeded cautiously. Instead of hurling themselves at the government, opposing parties within the Duma worked to develop the body as a whole. In the classic manner of the British Parliament, the Duma reached for power grasping for the national purse strings. The Duma had the right to question ministers behind closed doors as to their proposed expenditures. These sessions, endorsed by Stolypin, were educational for both sides, and, in time, mutual antagonism was replaced by mutual respect. Even the sensitive area of military expenditure, where the October Manifesto clearly had reserved decisions to the throne, a Duma commission began to operate. Composed of aggressive patriots no less anxious than Nicholas to restore the fallen honour of Russian arms, the Duma commission frequently recommended expenditures even larger than those proposed.

With the passage of time, Nicholas also began to have confidence in the Duma. "This Duma cannot be reproached with an attempt to seize power and there is no need at all to quarrel with it," he said to Stolypin in 1909. Unfortunately, Stolypin's plans were undercut by conservatives at court. Reactionaries such as Prince Vladimir Orlov never tired of telling the Tsar that the very existence of the Duma was a blot on the autocracy, which Tsaritsa Alexandra had always believed anyway. Stolypin, they whispered, was a traitor and secret revolutionary who was conniving with the Duma to steal the prerogatives assigned the Tsar by God. Witte also engaged in constant intrigue against Stolypin. Although Stolypin had had nothing to do with Witte's fall, Witte blamed him. Stolypin had unwittingly angered the Tsaritsa. He had ordered an investigation into Rasputin and presented it to the Tsar, who read it but did nothing. Stolypin, on his own authority, ordered Rasputin to leave St. Petersburg. Alexandra protested vehemently but Nicholas refused to overrule his Prime Minister, who had more influence with the Emperor.

By the time of Stolypin's assassination by Dmitry Bogrov, a student (and police informant) in a theatre in Kiev on 18 September 1911, Stolypin had grown weary of the burdens of office. For a man who preferred clear decisive action, working with a sovereign who believed in fatalism and mysticism was frustrating. As an example, Nicholas once returned a document unsigned with the note: "Despite most convincing arguments in favour of adopting a positive decision in this matter, an inner voice keeps on insisting more and more that I do not accept responsibility for it. So far my conscience has not deceived me. Therefore I intend in this case to follow its dictates. I know that you, too, believe that 'a Tsar's heart is in God's hands.' Let it be so. For all laws established by me I bear a great responsibility before God, and I am ready to answer for my decision at any time." Alexandra, believing that Stolypin had severed the bonds that her son depended on for life, hated the Prime Minister. In March 1911, in a fit of anger stating that he no longer commanded the imperial confidence, Stolypin asked to be relieved of his office. Two years earlier when Stolypin had casually mentioned resigning to Nicholas he was informed:

''"This is not a question of confidence or lack of it. It is my will. Remember that we live in Russia, not abroad...and therefore I shall not consider the possibility of any resignation."''

It never got that far. On 18 September 1911, in a procession where Stolypin's car was unprotected, Rasputin had coincidentally returned from his exile. As Stolypin's car passed him, Rasputin cried out in a loud voice, ''"Death is after him! Death is driving behind him!"'' Bogrov assassinated Stolypin in the Kiev theatre that night.

In 1912, a fourth Duma was elected with almost the same membership as the third. "The Duma started too fast. Now it is slower, but better, and more lasting," stated Nicholas to Sir Bernard Pares.

The First World War was a complete and utter disaster for Russia. By late 1916, among the Romanov family desperation reached the point of which Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich, younger brother of Alexander III and the Tsar's only surviving uncle, was deputed to beg Nicholas to grant a constitution and a government responsible to the Duma. Nicholas sternly refused, reproaching his uncle for asking him to break his coronation oath to maintain autocratic power intact for his successors. In the Duma on 2 December 1916, Vladimir Purishkevich, a fervent patriot, monarchist and war worker, denounced the dark forces which surrounded the throne in a thunderous two hour speech which was tumultuously applauded. "Revolution threatens--" he warned-- "and an obscure peasant shall govern Russia no longer!"

Tsarevich Alexei's illness & Rasputin

Further complicating domestic matters was the matter of the succession. Alexandra bore Nicholas four daughters, the Grand Duchess Olga in 1895, the Grand Duchess Tatiana in 1897, Grand Duchess Maria in 1899, and Grand Duchess Anastasia in 1901, before their son Alexei was born on 12 August 1904. The young heir was afflicted with hemophilia B, a hereditary disease that prevents blood from clotting properly, which at that time was untreatable and usually led to an untimely death. As a granddaughter of Queen Victoria, Alexandra carried the same gene mutation that afflicted several of the major European royal houses, such as Prussia and Spain. Hemophilia therefore became known as "the royal disease". Alexandra had passed it on to her son. As all of Nicholas and Alexandra's daughters perished with their parents and brother in Yekaterinburg in 1918, it is not known whether any of them inherited the gene as carriers.

Because of the fragility of the autocracy at this time, Nicholas and Alexandra chose not to divulge Alexei's condition to anyone outside the royal household. In fact, there were many in the Imperial household who were unaware of the exact nature of the Tsarevich's illness. At first Alexandra turned to Russian doctors and medics to treat Alexei; however, their treatments generally failed, and Alexandra increasingly turned to mystics and holy men (or ''starets'' as they were called in Russian). One of these starets, an illiterate Siberian, Grigori Rasputin, appeared to have some success. Rasputin's influence over Empress Alexandra, and consequently the Tsar, had grown stronger ever since 1912, when the Tsarevich nearly died from an injury while the family was on vacation at the hunting lodges at Bialowieza and Spala (now part of Poland). The bleeding grew steadily worse until it was assumed that the Tsarevich would not survive, and the Last Sacrament was administered on 10 October 1912. Desperate, Alexandra called Rasputin as a last resort, and the reply came, "God has seen your tears and heard your prayers. Do not grieve. The Little One will not die. Do not allow the doctors to bother him too much." The hemorrhage stopped the next day and the boy began to recover. Alexandra took this as a sign that Rasputin was a ''starets'' and that God was with him; for the rest of her life she would defend him and turn her wrath against anyone who dared to question him.

World War I

On 28 June 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand was assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Serbian nationalist association known as the Black Hand, in Sarajevo. Nicholas vacillated as to Russia's course of action. The outbreak of war was not inevitable, but leaders, diplomats and nineteenth-century alliances created a climate for large-scale conflict. The concept of Pan-Slavism and ethnicity allied Russia and Serbia in a treaty of protection, and Germany and Austria were similarly allied. Territorial conflict created rivalries between Germany and France and between Austria and Serbia, and as a consequence alliance networks developed across Europe. The Triple Entente and Triple Alliance networks were set before the war. The assassination of Ferdinand tripped these alliance networks bringing each country into conflict with one another as each independently declared war. Nicholas wanted neither to abandon Serbia to the ultimatum of Austria-Hungary, nor to provoke a general war. In a series of letters exchanged with Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany (the so-called "Willy and Nicky correspondence") the two proclaimed their desire for peace, and each attempted to get the other to back down. Nicholas took stern measures in this regard, demanding that Russia's mobilization be only against the Austrian border, in the hopes of preventing war with the German Empire. The Russians had no contingency plans for a partial mobilization, and on 31 July 1914 Nicholas took the fateful step of confirming the order for a general mobilization. Nicholas was strongly counselled against mobilization of the Russian forces but chose to ignore such advice. Nicholas put the Russian army on "alert" on July 25. Although this was not mobilization, it threatened the German and Austrian borders and looked like a military declaration of war.

On 28 July, Austria formally declared war against Serbia, bringing Germany into conflict with Russia and with France and Britain as Russia's allies. Count Witte told the French Ambassador Paleologue that from Russia's point of view the war was madness, Slav solidarity was simply nonsense and Russia could hope for nothing from the war. On 31 July Russia completed its mobilization, but still maintained that it would not attack if peace talks were to begin. Germany then replied that Russia must demobilize within the next twelve hours. In Saint Petersburg, at 7pm, with the ultimatum to Russia expired, the German ambassador to Russia met with the Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov, asked three times if Russia would not reconsider and then with shaking hands delivered the note accepting Russia's war challenge and declaring war.

The outbreak of war on 1 August 1914 found Russia grossly unprepared. Russia and her allies placed their faith in her army, the famous 'Russian steamroller'. Its pre-war regular strength was 1,400,000; mobilization added 3,100,000 reserves and millions more stood ready behind them. In every other respect, however, Russia was unprepared for war. Germany had ten times as much railway track per square mile and whereas Russian soldiers travelled an average of to reach the front, German soldiers traveled less than a quarter of that distance. Russian heavy industry was still too small to equip the massive armies the Tsar could raise and her reserves of munitions were pitifully small. With the Baltic Sea barred by German U-boats and the Dardanelles by the guns of Germany's ally, Turkey, Russia initially could receive help only via Archangel which was frozen solid in winter, or via Vladivostok, which was over from the front line. By 1915 a rail line was built north from Petrozavodsk to the Kola Gulf and this connection laid the foundation of the ice-free port of eventually was called Murmansk. The Russian High Command was moreover greatly weakened by the mutual contempt between Vladimir Sukhomlinov, the Minister of War, and the redoubtable warrior giant Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolayevich who commanded the armies in the field. In spite of all of this, an immediate attack was ordered against the German province of East Prussia. The Germans mobilized there with great efficiency and completely defeated the two Russian armies which had invaded. The Battle of Tannenberg where an entire Russian army was annihilated cast an ominous shadow over the empire's future. The loyal officers lost were the very ones needed to protect the dynasty. The Russian armies later had moderate success against both the Austro-Hungarian armies and against the forces of the Ottoman Empire. They never succeeded against the might of the German Army.

Gradually a war of attrition set in on the vast Eastern Front, where the Russians were facing the combined forces of the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires, and they suffered staggering losses. General Denikin, retreating from Galicia wrote, "The German heavy artillery swept away whole lines of trenches, and their defenders with them. We hardly replied. There was nothing with which we could reply. Our regiments, although completely exhausted, were beating off one attack after another by bayonet… Blood flowed unendingly, the ranks became thinner and thinner and thinner. The number of graves multiplied. Total losses for the spring and summer of 1915 amounted to 1,400,000 killed or wounded, while 976,000 had been taken prisoner. On 5 August with the army in retreat, Warsaw fell. Defeat at the front bred disorder at home. At first the targets were German and for three days in June shops, bakeries, factories, private houses and country estates belonging to people with German names were looted and burned. Then the inflamed mobs turned on the government declaring the Empress should be shut up in a convent, the Tsar deposed and Rasputin hanged. Nicholas was by no means deaf to these discontents. An emergency session of the Duma was summoned and a Special Defense Council established, its members drawn from the Duma and the Tsar's ministers.

In July 1915, King Christian X of Denmark, first cousin of the Tsar, sent Hans Niels Andersen to Tsarskoye Selo with an offer to act as a mediator. He made several trips between London, Berlin and Petrograd and in July saw the Dowager Empress Maria Fyodorovna. Andersen told her they should conclude peace. Nicholas chose to turn down King Christian's offer of mediation.

The energetic and efficient General Alexei Polivanov replaced Sukhomlinov as Minister of War, which failed to improve the strategic situation. In the aftermath of The Great Retreat and the loss of the Kingdom of Poland, Nicholas assumed the role of commander-in-chief after dismissing his cousin, Nikolay Nikolayevich, in September 1915. This was a mistake, as he came to be personally associated with the continuing losses at the front. He was also away at the remote HQ at Mogilev, far from the direct governance of the empire, and when revolution broke out in Petrograd he was unable to halt it. In reality the move was largely symbolic, since all important military decisions were made by his chief-of-staff General Michael Alexeiev, and Nicholas did little more than review troops, inspect field hospitals, and preside over military luncheons.

The Duma was still calling for political reforms and political unrest continued throughout the war. Cut off from public opinion, Nicholas could not see that the dynasty was in decline. With Nicholas at the front, domestic issues and control of the capital were left with his wife Alexandra. However, Alexandra's relationship with Grigori Rasputin, and her German background, further discredited the dynasty's authority. Nicholas had been repeatedly warned about the destructive influence of Grigori Rasputin but had failed to remove him. Rumours and accusations about Alexandra and Rasputin appeared one after another. Alexandra was even brought under allegations of treason and undermining the government due to her German roots. On August 18 (31), 1914 by the order of Nicholas II the capital was renamed Petrograd (Slavic for 'Petersburg'), in response to increasing war-time Germanophobia. Anger at Nicholas's failure to act and the extreme damage that Rasputin's influence was doing to Russia's war effort and to the monarchy led to his (Rasputin's) murder by a group of nobles, led by Prince Felix Yusupov and Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich, a cousin of the Tsar, on 16 December 1916.

The collapse of his reign

As the government failed to produce supplies, there was mounting hardship creating massive riots and rebellions. With Nicholas away at the front in 1915, authority appeared to collapse (Empress Alexandra ran the government from Petrograd from 1915), and the capital was left in the hands of strikers and mutineering conscript soldiers. Despite efforts by the British Ambassador Sir George Buchanan to warn the Tsar that he should grant constitutional reforms to fend off revolution, Nicholas continued to bury himself away at the Staff HQ (Stavka) away at Moghilev, leaving his capital and court open to intrigues and insurrection. By early 1917, Russia was on the verge of total collapse. The army had taken 15 million men from the farms and food prices had soared. An egg cost four times what it had in 1914, butter five times as much. The severe winter dealt the railways, overburdened by emergency shipments of coal and supplies, the final blow. Russia began the war with 20,000 locomotives; by 1917 9,000 were in service, while the number of serviceable railway wagons had dwindled from half a million to 170,000. In February 1917, 1,200 locomotives burst their boilers and nearly 60,000 wagons were immobilised. In Petrograd supplies of flour and fuel all but disappeared. War-time prohibition of alcohol was enacted by Nicholas in order to boost patriotism and productivity, but instead damaged the treasury and funding of the war due to the treasury now being deprived of alcohol taxes.

On 23 February 1917 in Petrograd a combination of very severe cold weather allied with acute food shortages caused people to start to break shop windows to get bread and other necessaries. In the streets, red banners appeared and the crowds chanted "Down with the German woman! Down with Protopopov! Down with the war!" Police started to shoot at the populace from rooftops which incited riots. The troops in the capital were poorly motivated and their officers had no reason to be loyal to the regime. They were angry and full of revolutionary fervor and sided with the populace. The Tsar's Cabinet begged Nicholas to return to the capital and offered to resign completely. Five hundred miles away the Tsar, misinformed by Protopopov that the situation was under control, ordered that firm steps be taken against the demonstrators. For this task the Petrograd garrison was quite unsuitable. The cream of the old regular army lay in their graves in Poland and Galicia. In Petrograd 170,000 recruits, country boys or older men from the working-class suburbs of the capital itself, remained to keep control under the command of wounded officers invalided from the front, and cadets from the military academies. Many units, lacking both officers and rifles, had never undergone formal training. General Khabalov attempted to put the Tsar's instructions into effect on the morning of Sunday, 11 March 1917. Despite huge posters ordering people to keep off the streets, vast crowds gathered and were only dispersed after some 200 had been shot dead, though a company of the Volinsky Regiment fired into the air rather than into the mob, and a company of the Pavlovsky Life Guards shot the officer who gave the command to open fire. Nicholas, informed of the situation by Rodzianko, ordered reinforcements to the capital and suspended the Duma. It was all too late.

On 12 March the Volinsky Regiment mutinied and was quickly followed by the Semenovsky, the Ismailovsky, the Litovsky and even the legendary Preobrazhensky Regiment of Guard, the oldest and staunchest regiment founded by Peter the Great. The arsenal was pillaged, the Ministry of the Interior, Military Government building, police headquarters, the Law Courts and a score of police buildings were put to the torch. By noon the fortress of Peter and Paul with its heavy artillery was in the hands of the insurgents. By nightfall 60,000 soldiers had joined the revolution. Order broke down and members of the Parliament (Duma) formed a Provisional Government to try to restore order but it was impossible to turn the tide of revolutionary change. Already the Duma and the Soviet had formed the nucleus of a Provisional Government and decided that Nicholas must abdicate. Faced with this demand, which was echoed by his generals, deprived of loyal troops, with his family firmly in the hands of the Provisional Government and fearful of unleashing civil war and opening the way for German conquest, Nicholas had no choice but to submit. At the end of the "February Revolution" of 1917 (February in the Old Russian Calendar), on 2 March (Julian Calendar)/ 15 March (Gregorian Calendar) 1917, Nicholas II chose to abdicate. He firstly abdicated in favour of Tsarevich Alexei, but swiftly changed his mind after advice from doctors that the heir would not live long apart from his parents who would be forced into exile. Nicholas drew up a new manifesto naming his brother, Grand Duke Michael, as the next Emperor of all the Russias. He issued the following statement (which was suppressed by the Provisional Government):

''"In the days of the great struggle against the foreign enemies, who for nearly three years have tried to enslave our fatherland, the Lord God has been pleased to send down on Russia a new heavy trial. Internal popular disturbances threaten to have a disastrous effect on the future conduct of this persistent war. The destiny of Russia, the honor of our heroic army, the welfare of the people and the whole future of our dear fatherland demand that the war should be brought to a victorious conclusion whatever the cost. The cruel enemy is making his last efforts, and already the hour approaches when our glorious army together with our gallant allies will crush him. In these decisive days in the life of Russia, We thought it Our duty of conscience to facilitate for Our people the closest union possible and a consolidation of all national forces for the speedy attainment of victory. In agreement with the Imperial Duma We have thought it well to renounce the Throne of the Russian Empire and to lay down the supreme power. As We do not wish to part from Our beloved son, We transmit the succession to Our brother, the Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich, and give Him Our blessing to mount the Throne of the Russian Empire. We direct Our brother to conduct the affairs of state in full and inviolable union with the representatives of the people in the legislative bodies on those principles which will be established by them, and on which He will take an inviolable oath. In the name of Our dearly beloved homeland, We call on Our faithful sons of the fatherland to fulfill their sacred duty to the fatherland, to obey the Tsar in the heavy moment of national trials, and to help Him, together with the representatives of the people, to guide the Russian Empire on the road to victory, welfare, and glory. May the Lord God help Russia!"''

Grand Duke Mikhail declined to accept the throne until the people were allowed to vote through a Constituent Assembly for the continuance of the monarchy or a republic. The abdication of Nicholas II and the subsequent Bolshevik revolution brought three centuries of the Romanov dynasty's rule to an end. The fall of autocratic Tsardom brought joy to Liberals and Socialists in Britain and France and made it possible for the United States of America, the first foreign government to recognise the Provisional government, to enter the war early in April fighting in an alliance of democracies against an alliance of empires. In Russia, the announcement of the Tsar's abdication was greeted with many emotions. These included delight, relief, fear, anger and confusion.

Final months and murder

Nicholas desperately wanted to go into exile in the United Kingdom following his abdication. The British government initially offered him asylum in England, but this was overruled by King George V who, acting on the advice of his secretary Lord Stamfordham, was worried that Nicholas' presence in the UK might provoke an uprising.

In August 1917, the Kerensky government evacuated the Romanovs to Tobolsk in the Urals, allegedly to protect them from the rising tide of revolution. There they lived in the former Governor's Mansion in considerable comfort. In October 1917, however, the Bolsheviks seized power from Kerensky's Provisional Government; Nicholas followed the events in October with interest but as yet no alarm. He continued to underestimate Lenin's importance but already began to feel that his abdication had done Russia more harm than good. In the meantime he and his family occupied themselves with keeping warm. Conditions of imprisonment became more strict, and talk of putting Nicholas on trial grew more frequent. The Tsar was forbidden to wear epaulettes.

On 1 March 1918, the family was placed on soldier's rations, which meant parting with ten devoted servants and giving up butter and coffee as luxuries. What kept the family's spirits up was the belief that help was at hand. The Romanovs believed that various plots were underway to break them out of captivity and smuggle them to safety. But on 30 April 1918 they were transferred to their final destination: the town of Yekaterinburg, where they were imprisoned in the two-story Ipatiev House, the home of the military engineer Nikolay Nikolayevich Ipatiev, which ominously became referred to as the 'house of special purpose'.

In May 1918, central Russia was invaded by Czech Legion ("White Czechs"). On May 26 they captured Chelyabinsk, executing all members of the local Soviet; on May 31 at Petropavlovsk they shot all 20 members of the local Soviet. The Komuch government formed on June 8 in Samara after the Czechs occupied the city. More than 5000 people in the Volga region fell the victims of this regime through the autumn of 1918.

On the night of 16/17 July 1918, the royal family was awakened around 2:00 am, told to dress, and led down into a half-basement room at the back of the Ipatiev house; the pretext for this move was the family's safety—that anti-Bolshevik forces were approaching Yekaterinburg, and the house might be fired upon. There are also unsubstantiated claims that the family was led to the basement under the pretense that family photographs would be made. Present with Nicholas, Alexandra and their children were their doctor and three of their servants, who had voluntarily chosen to remain with the family—the Tsar's personal physician Eugene Botkin, his wife's maid Anna Demidova, and the family's chef, Ivan Kharitonov, and footman, Alexei Trupp. A firing squad had been assembled and was waiting in an adjoining room, composed of seven Communist soldiers from Central Europe, and three local Bolsheviks, all under the command of Bolshevik officer Yakov Yurovsky (the soldiers are often described as Hungarians; in his account, Yurovsky described them as "Latvians"). Nicholas was carrying his son; when the family arrived in the basement, the former empress complained that there were no chairs for them to sit in. Yurovsky ordered chairs brought in, and when the empress and the heir were seated, the executioners filed into the room. Yurovsky announced to them that they had been condemned to death by the Ural Soviet of Workers' Deputies. A stunned Nicholas asked, "What? What?" and turned toward his family. Accounts differ on whether Yurovsky quickly repeated the order or whether he simply shot the former emperor outright. One witness among the several who later wrote accounts of Nicholas's last moments reported that the Tsar said, "You know not what you do," paraphrasing Jesus's words on the cross.

The executioners drew revolvers and the shooting began. Nicholas was the first to die; Yurovsky shot him multiple times in the chest (sometimes incorrectly said the head, since his skull bore no bullet wounds when it was discovered in 1991). Anastasia, Tatiana, Olga, and Maria survived the first hail of bullets; the sisters were wearing over 1.3 kilograms of diamonds and precious gems sewn into their clothing, which provided some initial protection from the bullets and bayonets. They were stabbed with bayonets and then shot at close range in the head.

An announcement from the Presidium of the Ural Regional Soviet of the Workers' and Peasants' Government emphasized that conspiracies had been exposed to free the ex-tsar, as well as how counter-revolutionary forces were pressing in on Soviet Russian territory, and that the ex-tsar was guilty of unforgivable crimes against the nation.

"In view of the enemy's proximity to Yekaterinburg and the exposure by the Cheka of a serious White Guard plot with the goal of abducting the former Tsar and his family...In light of the approach of counterrevolutionary bands toward the Red capital of the Urals and the possibility of the crowned executioner escaping trial by the people (a plot among the White Guards to try to abduct him and his family was exposed and the compromising documents will be published), the Presidum of the Ural Regional Soviet, fulfilling the will of the Revolution, resolved to shoot the former Tsar, Nikolai Romanov, who is guilty of countless, bloody, violent acts against the Russian people."

Identification

In 1979, the bodies of Tsar Nicholas II, Tsarina Alexandra, three of their daughters, and those of four non-family members killed with them, were discovered near Sverdlovsk by amateur archaeologist Alexander Avdonin. In January 1998, the remains excavated from underneath the dirt road near Yekaterinburg were officially identified as those of Nicholas II and his family (excluding one of the sisters, and Alexei). The identifications by separate Russian, British and American scientists using DNA analysis concur and were found to be conclusive. After the testing, the remains were finally interred at St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in Saint Petersburg on 17 July 1998, eighty years after they were executed.

In July 2007, 46-year-old builder Sergei Pogorelov (part of a team from an amateur history group who spent free summer weekends looking for the lost Romanovs) said that after stumbling on a small burned area of ground covered with nettles near Yekaterinburg he had discovered bones that belonged to "a boy and a young woman roughly the ages of Nicholas’ 13-year-old hemophiliac son, Alexei, and a daughter whose remains also never have been found."

On 23 August 2007, acting on standard procedures, prosecutors reopened the investigation surrounding the deaths of the Imperial Family.

On 30 April 2008, DNA tests performed by a US laboratory proved that bone fragments exhumed in the Ural Mountains belonged to two children of Nicholas II, son Alexei (b. 1904) and daughter Maria (b. 1899), according to Russian news agencies. That same day it was announced by Russian authorities that the remains of the entire family had been identified.

On 1 October 2008, Russia's Supreme Court ruled that Nicholas II and his family were victims of political repression and should be rehabilitated. In March 2009, results of the DNA testing were published, confirming that the two bodies discovered in 2007 were those of Alexei and his sister Maria.

Nicholas belonged to the paternal haplogroup R1b; based upon Y-STR DNA test results on his remains, which have also been validated with results from a living relative. The Tsar belonged to the maternal haplogroup T based upon mitochondrial DNA mutations: 16126C, 16169Y, 16294T, 16296T, 73G, 263G, and 315.1C.

Sainthood

Name	Tsar Nicholas II of Russia
Birth date	May 18, 1868
Death date	July 17, 1918
Feast day	17 July
Venerated in	Eastern Orthodoxy
Birth place	Tsarskoye Selo,St. Petersburg Russia
Death place	Yekaterinburg, Russian SFSR
Titles	Tsar-Martyr Nicholas II of Russia Royal Passion-Bearer Tsar Nicholas II of Russia
Canonized date	1981 and 2000
Canonized place	Russia
Canonized by	Russian Orthodox Church Abroad and the Russian Orthodox Church
Major shrine	Church on Blood, Ekaterinburg, Russia
Issues	}}

In 1981, Nicholas and his immediate family were recognised as martyred saints by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia. On 14 August 2000, they were recognised by the synod of the Russian Orthodox Church. This time they were not named as martyrs, since their deaths did not result immediately from their Christian faith; instead, they were canonized as passion bearers. According to a statement by the Moscow synod, they were glorified as saints for the following reasons:

''"In the last Orthodox Russian monarch and members of his family we see people who sincerely strove to incarnate in their lives the commands of the Gospel. In the suffering borne by the Royal Family in prison with humility, patience, and meekness, and in their martyrs deaths in Yekaterinburg in the night of 17 July 1918 was revealed the light of the faith of Christ that conquers evil."''

However, Nicholas's canonization was controversial. The Russian Orthodox Church Abroad was split on the issue back in 1981, some members suggesting that the emperor was a weak ruler and had failed to prevent the outbreak of Communism in Russia. It was pointed out by one priest that martyrdom in the Russian Orthodox Church has nothing to do with the martyr's personal actions but is instead related to why he or she was killed. The Russian Orthodox Church inside Russia rejected the family's classification as martyrs because they were not killed because of their religious faith. Religious leaders in both churches also had objections to canonizing the Tsar's family because they perceived him as a weak emperor whose incompetence led to the revolution and the suffering of his people and made him at least partially responsible for his own murder and those of his wife and children. For these opponents, the fact that the Tsar was, in private life, a kind man and a good husband and father did not override his poor governance of Russia.

Despite the original opposition, the Russian Orthodox Church inside Russia ultimately recognised the family as "passion bearers," or people who met their deaths with Christian humility. The Church does not, however, recognize the remains interred at Peter and Paul Cathedral as being those of the Imperial Family.

Assessment

Nicholas is generally considered to have been incompetent at the colossal task of ruling the enormous Russian Empire. Historian Barbara Tuchman gives a damning evaluation of his reign:

[The Russian Empire] was ruled from the top by a sovereign who had but one idea of government—to preserve intact the absolute monarchy bequeathed to him by his father—and who, lacking the intellect, energy or training for his job, fell back on personal favorites, whim, simple mulishness, and other devices of the empty-headed autocrat. His father, Alexander III, who deliberately intended to keep his son uneducated in statecraft until the age of thirty, unfortunately miscalculated his own life expectancy, and died when Nicholas was twenty-six. The new Tsar had learned nothing in the interval, and the impression of imperturbability he conveyed was in reality apathy—the indifference of a mind so shallow as to be all surface. When a telegram was brought to him announcing the annihilation of the Russian fleet at Tsushima, he read it, stuffed it in his pocket, and went on playing tennis.

In Russia, Nicholas II faced widespread criticism after the victory of the Revolution. Pavel Bykov, who in Russia wrote the first full account about the downfall of the Tsar, denounced Nicholas as a "tyrant, who paid with his life for the age-old repression and arbitrary rule of his ancestors over the Russian people, over the impoverished and blood-soaked country". Soviet-era historians noted that Nicholas II was not fit to be a statesman. It has been argued that he had a weak will and was manipulated by adventurist forces. His regime was condemned for extensive use of the army, police, and courts to destroy the revolutionary movement. He was criticized for fanning nationalism and chauvinism. With the punitive expeditions and courts-martial during the 1905 Revolution, the monarch became known as "Nicholas the Bloody". Nicholas' reign was seen as a time of suffering for Russians.

Robert K. Massie provides a more sympathetic view of the Tsar:

...there still are those who for political or other reasons continue to insist that Nicholas was "Bloody Nicholas." Most commonly, he is described as shallow, weak, stupid—a one-dimensional figure presiding feebly over the last days of a corrupt and crumbling system. This, certainly, is the prevailing public image of the last Tsar. Historians admit that Nicholas was a "good man"--the historical evidence of personal charm, gentleness, love of family, deep religious faith and strong Russian patriotism is too overwhelming to be denied-—but they argue that personal factors are irrelevant; what matters is that Nicholas was a bad tsar....Essentially, the tragedy of Nicholas II was that he appeared in the wrong place in history.

Ancestors

Patrilineal descent

Nicholas's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son.

Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations — which means that if Nicholas II were to have chosen an historically accurate house name it would have been Oldenburg, as all his male-line ancestors were of that house. See also Tsars of Russia family tree.

House of Oldenburg: # Egilmar I of Lerigau, death date unknown # Egilmar II of Lerigau, d. 1141 # Christian I of Oldenburg, d. 1167 # Moritz of Oldenburg, d. 1209 # Christian II of Oldenburg, d. 1233 # John I, Count of Oldenburg, d. 1275 # Christian III, Count of Oldenburg, d. 1285 # John II, Count of Oldenburg, d. 1314 # Conrad I, Count of Oldenburg, 1300–1347 # Christian V, Count of Oldenburg, 1340–1423 # Dietrich, Count of Oldenburg, 1398–1440 # Christian I of Denmark, 1426–1481 # Frederick I of Denmark, 1471–1533 # Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 1526–1586 # John Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 1575–1616 # Frederick III, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 1597–1659 # Christian Albert, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 1641–1695 # Frederick IV, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 1671–1702 # Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 1700–1739 # Peter III of Russia, 1728–1762, putative father of # Paul I of Russia, 1754–1801 # Nicholas I of Russia, 1796–1855 # Alexander II of Russia, 1818–1881 # Alexander III of Russia, 1845–1894 # Nicholas II of Russia, 1868–1918

Descent from Rurik

Nicholas's family, the Romanovs, were originally in-laws of the Rurikids, with no Rurikid blood in them until the Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia married Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, who descends from the Grand Dukes of Kiev and the legendary Viking ruler of Russia, Rurik. See also Rurikid Dynasty.

# Rurik # Igor of Kiev # Sviatoslav I of Kiev # Vladimir the Great # Yaroslav I the Wise # Vladimir II Monomakh # Mstislav I of Kiev # Ingeborg of Kiev # Valdemar I of Denmark # Valdemar II of Denmark # Erik IV of Denmark # Sofia of Denmark # Ingeborg Valdemarsdotter of Sweden # Gerhard IV, Count of Holstein-Itzehoe-Plön # Ingeborg of Holstein # Christian V, Count of Oldenburg # Dietrich, Count of Oldenburg # Christian I of Denmark # Frederic I of Denmark # Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp # John Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp # Frederick III, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp # Christian Albert, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp # Frederick IV, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp # Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp # Peter III of Russia # Paul I of Russia # Nicholas I of Russia # Alexander II of Russia # Alexander III of Russia # Nicholas II of Russia

Children

The children of Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra are as follows: Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia

!Image!!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
align=center	90px	Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna||		17 July 1918	Shot at Yekaterinburg by the Bolsheviks.
align=center	90px	Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of Russia>Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna
align=center	90px	Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia (1899–1918)>Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna
align=center	90px	Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia>Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna
align=center	90px	Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia>Tsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich

Titles and styles

''His Imperial Highness'' Grand Duke Nikolay Alexandrovich of Russia (1868–1881)

''His Imperial Highness'' The Tsarevitch of Russia (1881–1894)

''His Imperial Majesty'' The Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias (1894–1917)

Citizen Nicholas Alexandroviсh Romanov (1917–1918)

Titles of the Imperial Crown of Russia

The full title of Russian emperors started with "by the Grace of God, Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias, of Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauric Chersonesos, Tsar of Georgia, Lord of Pskov, and Grand Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia, and Finland, Prince of Estonia, Livonia, Courland and Semigalia, Samogitia, Belostok, Karelia, Tver, Yugra, Perm, Vyatka, Bulgaria and other territories; Lord and Grand Duke of Nizhni Novgorod, Sovereign of Chernigov, Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Beloozero, Udoria, Obdoria, Kondia, Vitebsk, Mstislavl, and all northern territories; Sovereign of Iveria, Kartalinia, and the Kabardinian lands and Armenian territories - hereditary Lord and Ruler of the Circassians and Mountain Princes and others; Lord of Turkestan, Heir of Norway, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Stormarn, Dithmarschen, Oldenburg," and continued through so long a list of ancillary titles that even Massie did not bother to list them all in ''Nicholas and Alexandra.''

Depictions in literature and popular culture

Ralph Morgan in ''Rasputin and the Empress'' (1933)

Michael Jayston in ''Nicholas and Alexandra'' (1971)

Charles Kay in the BBC production ''Fall of Eagles'' (1973)

Omar Sharif in NBC's ''Anastasia: The Mystery of Anna'' (1986)

Ian McKellen in ''Rasputin: Dark Servant of Destiny'' (1996)

Ivan Marevich in the BBC production ''The Lost Prince'' (2003)

A great-great-grandfather of a character in The Last Wizard of the Century, the 3rd Movie of the Case Closed series.

Ted Neeley in the rock opera Rasputin – Miracles Lie in the Eye of the Beholder

Fictional lover of Mathilde-Marie Felixovna Kschessinska in ''The True Memoirs of Little K'', novel by Adrienne Sharp (2010)

References

Further reading

The Sokolov Report, in Victor Alexandrov, "The End of The Romanovs", London: 1966

Boris Antonov, ''Russian Czars'', St. Petersburg, Ivan Fiodorov Art Publishers (ISBN 5-93893-109-6)

Michael M. Baden, ''Chapter III: Time of Death and Changes after Death. Part 4: Exhumation'', In: Spitz, W.U. & Spitz, D.J. (eds): ''Spitz and Fisher’s Medicolegal Investigation of Death. Guideline for the Application of Pathology to Crime Investigations (Fourth edition).'' Charles C. Thomas, pp.: 174-183, Springfield, Illinois: 2006

Paul Grabbe, "The Private World of the Last Czar" New York: 1985

Ferro, Marc, ''Nicholas II: Last of the Czars''. New York: Oxford University Press (US), 1993 (hardcover, ISBN 0-19-508192-7); 1995 (paperback, ISBN 0-19-509382-8)

Genrikh Ioffe, ''Revoliutsiia i sud'ba Romanovykh'' Moscow: Respublika, 1992

Coryne Hall & John Van der Kiste, ''Once A Grand Duchess : Xenia, Sister of Nicholas II'', Phoenix Mill, Sutton Publishing Ltd., 2002 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7509-2749-6)

Greg King, ''The Court of the Last Czar: Pomp, Power and Pageantry in the Reign of Nicholas II'' 2006

Greg King and Penny Wilson, "The Fate of the Romanovs" 2003

Dominic Lieven, ''Nicholas II: Emperor of All the Russias''. 1993.

Andrei Maylunas and Sergei Mironenko, ''A Lifelong Passion: Nicholas & Alexandra'' 1999

Marvin Lyons, ''Nicholas II The Last Czar'', London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974 (hardcover, ISBN 0710078021)

Shay McNeal, "The Secret Plot to Save the Czar" 2001

Robert K. Massie, ''Nicholas and Alexandra'' 1967

Robert K. Massie, ''The Romanovs. The Final Chapter'' 1995, ISBN 0394580486

Bernard Pares, "The Fall of the Russian Monarchy" London: 1939, reprint London: 1988

John Curtis Perry and Konstantin Pleshakov, ''The Flight of the Romanovs''. 1999.

Edvard Radzinsky, '' The Last Tsar: The Life and Death of Nicholas II '' (1992) ISBN 0-385-42371-3.

Samten, Jampa. (2010). "Notes on the Thirteenth Dalai Lama's Confidential Letter to the Tsar of Russia." In: ''The Tibet Journal'', Special issue. Autumn 2009 vol XXXIV n. 3-Summer 2010 vol XXXV n. 2. "The Earth Ox Papers", edited by Roberto Vitali, pp. 357–370.

Mark D. Steinberg and Vladimir M. Khrustalev, ''The Fall of the Romanovs: Political Dreams and Personal Struggles in a Time of Revolution'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.

Anthony Summers and Tom Mangold,'' The File on the Czar''. 1976.

Richard Tames, ''Last of the Czars'', London, Pan Books Ltd, 1972

Andrew M. Verner, ''The Crisis of the Russian Autocracy: Nicholas II and the 1905 Revolution'' 1990

Ian Vorres, ''The Last Grand Duchess'', London, Finedawn Publishers, 1985 (hardcover)

Richard Wortman, ''Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy'', vol. 2 2000

Prince Felix Yussupov, Lost Splendour

Elisabeth Heresch, "Nikolaus II. Feigheit, Lüge und Verrat". F.A.Herbig Verlagsbuchhandlung, München, 1992

''The Complete Wartime Correspondence of Czar Nicholas II and the Empress Alexandra, April 1914 – March 1917''. Edited by Joseph T. Furhmann Fuhrmann. Westport, Conn. and London: 1999

''Letters of Czar Nicholas and Empress Marie'' Ed. Edward J. Bing. London: 1937

''Letters of the Czar to the Czaritsa, 1914–1917'' Trans. from Russian translations from the original English. E. L. Hynes. London and New York: 1929

''Nicky-Sunny Letters: correspondence of the Czar and Czaritsa, 1914–1917''. Hattiesburg, Miss: 1970.

''The Secret Letters of the Last Czar: Being the Confidential Correspondence between Nicholas II and his Mother, Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna''. Ed. Edward J. Bing. New York and Toronto: 1938

''Willy-Nicky Correspondence: Being the Secret and Intimate Telegrams Exchanged Between the Kaiser and the Czar''. Ed. Herman Bernstein. New York: 1917.

Paul Benckendorff, ''Last Days at Czarskoe Selo''. London: 1927

Sophie Buxhoeveden, ''The Life and Tragedy of Alexandra Fedorovna, Empress of Russia: A Biography'' London: 1928

Pierre Gilliard, Thirteen Years at the Russian Court New York: 1921

A. A. Mossolov (Mosolov), At the Court of the Last Czar London: 1935

Anna Vyrubova, ''Memories of the Russian Court'' London: 1923

A.Yarmolinsky, editor, "The Memoirs of Count Witte" New York & Toronto: 1921

Sir George Buchanan (British Ambassador) My Mission to Russia & Other Diplomatic Memories (2 vols, Cassell, 1923)

Meriel Buchanan, Dissolution of an Empire, Cassell, 1932

Gleb Botkin, ''The Real Romanovs'', Fleming H. Revell Co, 1931

Mark D. Steinberg and Vladimir M. Khrustalev, ''The Fall of the Romanovs: Political Dreams and Personal Struggles in a Time of Revolution''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995

External links

A short biography on Nicholas II

The Execution of Czar Nicholas II, 1918, EyeWitness to History.

Brief Summary of Czar

Abdication Proclamation, 2 March 1917 (the signature was put in pencil) (translation included)

Alexander Palace Time Machine

Nicholas and Alexandra Exhibition

Frozentears.org A Media Library to Nicholas II and his Family.

Scientists Reopen Czar Mystery

Ipatiev House — Romanov Memorial detailed site on the historical context, circumstances and drama surrounding the Romanov's execution

The Murder of Russia's Imperial Family, Nicolay Sokolov. Investigation of execution of the Romanov Imperial Family in 1918. Nikolay II — Life and Death, Edvard Radzinski. Later published in English as ''The Last Czar: the Life and Death of Nicholas II''.

New Russian Martyrs. Czar Nicholas and His Family. A story of life, canonization. Photoalbum.

Russian History Magazine Articles about the Romanovs from Atlantis magazine.

Russia's Last Czar Declared Victim of Repression - October 2008 (''TIME'' magazine)

Resurrecting the Czar - November 2010 (''Smithsonian'' magazine)

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af:Nikolaas II van Rusland am:ዳግማዊ ኒኮላይ ar:نيقولا الثاني an:Nicolau II de Rusia ast:Nicolás II az:II Nikolay bn:রাশিয়ার দ্বিতীয় নিকোলাস be:Мікалай II, імператар расійскі be-x-old:Мікалай II bs:Nikola II, car Rusije bg:Николай II (Русия) ca:Nicolau II de Rússia cs:Mikuláš II. Alexandrovič cy:Niclas II, tsar Rwsia da:Nikolaj 2. af Rusland de:Nikolaus II. (Russland) et:Nikolai II el:Νικόλαος Β' της Ρωσίας es:Nicolás II de Rusia eo:Nikolao la 2-a (Rusio) eu:Nikolas II.a Errusiakoa fa:نیکلای دوم fr:Nicolas II de Russie ga:Nioclás II na Rúise gl:Nicolao II de Rusia kk:Николай ІI ko:니콜라이 2세 hr:Nikola II., ruski car io:Nikolai 2ma id:Nikolai II dari Rusia os:Николай II is:Nikulás 2. it:Nicola II di Russia he:ניקולאי השני, קיסר רוסיה jv:Nikolai II saking Rusia ka:ნიკოლოზ II (რუსეთი) la:Nicolaus II (imperator Russiae) lv:Nikolajs II Romanovs lt:Nikolajus II hu:II. Miklós orosz cár mk:Николај II (Русија) mr:निकोलाय दुसरा, रशिया arz:نيكولاى التانى ms:Nicholas II dari Rusia nl:Nicolaas II van Rusland ja:ニコライ2世 no:Nikolaj II av Russland nn:Nikolaj II av Russland pnb:نکولس II pl:Mikołaj II Romanow pt:Nicolau II da Rússia ro:Nicolae al II-lea al Rusiei ru:Николай II sq:Nikolla II simple:Nicholas II of Russia sk:Mikuláš II. (Rusko) sl:Nikolaj II. Ruski sr:Николај II Александрович sh:Nikola II., ruski car fi:Nikolai II sv:Nikolaj II av Ryssland tl:Nicholas II ng Rusya ta:ரஷ்யாவின் இரண்டாம் நிக்கலாஸ் tt:Николай II th:ซาร์นิโคลัสที่ 2 แห่งรัสเซีย tr:II. Nikolay (Rusya) uk:Микола II (російський імператор) vi:Nikolai II của Nga zh:尼古拉二世 (俄罗斯)

Royal title	Monarchy
Border	imperial
Realm	Russia
Coatofarms	Lesser Coat of Arms of Russian Empire.svg
Coatofarmssize	120px
Coatofarmscaption	Imperial Coat of arms
Style	His/Her Imperial Majesty
Last monarch	Nicholas II(as Emperor)
First monarch	Rurik(as Grand Prince)
Began	c.860
Ended	15 March 1917
Pretender	DisputedNicholas Romanov(Nikolaevichi branch)Maria Vladimirovna(Vladimirovichi branch) }}

The vast territory known today as Russia covers an area that has been known historically by various names, including Rus', Kievan Rus', the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, and the sovereigns of these many nations and throughout their histories have used likewise as wide a range of titles in their positions as chief magistrates of a country. Some of the earliest titles include ''Kniaz'' and ''Velikiy Kniaz'', which mean "Prince" and "Great Prince" respectively but are often rendered as "Duke" and "Grand Duke" in Western literature; then the title of Tsar, meaning "Caesar", which was disputed to be the equal of either a king or emperor; finally culminating in the title of Emperor. The full title of the Russian Emperors, according to Article 59 of the 1906 Russian Constitution, was given as:

::Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias, of Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauric Chersonesos, Tsar of Georgia, Lord of Pskov, and Grand Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia, and Finland, Prince of Estonia, Livonia, Courland and Semigalia, Samogitia, Belostok, Karelia, Tver, Yugra, Perm, Vyatka, Bulgaria and other territories; Lord and Grand Duke of Nizhni Novgorod, Sovereign of Chernigov, Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Beloozero, Udoria, Obdoria, Kondia, Vitebsk, Mstislavl, and all northern territories; Sovereign of Iveria, Kartalinia, and the Kabardinian lands and Armenian territories - hereditary Lord and Ruler of the Circassians and Mountain Princes and others; Lord of Turkestan, Heir of Norway, Duke of Schleswig–Holstein, Stormarn, Dithmarschen, Oldenburg, and so forth, and so forth, and so forth.

The Patriarchs of Moscow, who are the head of Russian Orthodox Church, also have acted as the leaders of Russia from time to time, usually in periods of political upheaval as during the Polish occupation and interregnum of 1610–1613.

Princes of Novgorod

Legendary princes of Novgorod

Burivoy

Gostomysl

Novgorod Rus

{|class="wikitable" |- !Monarch !Portrait !Born-Died !Ruled From !Ruled Until |- |Rurik||100px||?–879||862||879 |- |Oleg of Novgorod||100px||?–912||879||882 |}

Grand Princes of Kiev (c. 862–1132)

{|class="wikitable" |- !Monarch !Portrait !Born-Died !Ruled From !Ruled Until |- |Askold and Dir ''(not the Rurikids)''||''no image''||?–882||842 or 862||882 |- |Oleg of Novgorod||100px||?–912||882||912 |- |Igor of Kiev||100px||?–945||913||945 |- |Olga of Kiev ''(regent)''||100px||?–969||945||962 |- |Sviatoslav I||100px||942–972||962||972 |- |Yaropolk I||100px||958 (960?)–980||972||980 |- |Vladimir the Great||100px||958–1015||980||1015 |- |Sviatopolk the Accursed||100px||980–1019||1015||1019 |- |Yaroslav the Wise||100px||978–1054||1019||1054 |- |Iziaslav I of Kiev||''no image''||1024–1078||1054||1068 |- |Vseslav of Polotsk||100px||1039–1101||1068||1069 |- |Iziaslav I of Kiev ''(second time)''||''no image''||1024–1078||1069||1073 |- |Sviatoslav II of Kiev||100px||1027–1076||1073||1076 |- |Iziaslav I of Kiev ''(third time)''||''no image''||1024–1078||1076||1078 |- |Vsevolod I of Kiev||''no image''||1030–1093||1078||1093 |- |Sviatopolk II of Kiev||''no image''||1050–1113||1093||1113 |- |Vladimir II Monomakh||100px||1053–1125||1113||1125 |- |Mstislav the Great||100px||1076–1132||1125||1132 |}

Disintegrated Kievan Rus (c. 1132-1518)

Novgorod Republic (1136–1478)

Sviatoslav Olgovich, 1136–1138

Sviatopolk Mstislavich (2nd time), 1138

Rostislav Yurevich, 1138–1140

Sviatoslav Olgovich (2nd time), 1140–1141

Sviatoslav Vsevolodich, 1141

Rostislav Yurevich (2nd time), 1141–1142

Sviatopolk Mstislavich, 1142–1148

Yaroslav II of Kiev, 1148–1154

Rostislav Mstislavich, 1154

David Rostislavich of Smolensk, 1154–1155

Mstislav Yurevich, 1155–1158

Sviatoslav Rostislavich of Smolensk, 1158–1160

Mstislav the Eyeless, 1160–1161

Sviatoslav Rostislavich (2nd time), 1161–1168

Roman the Great, 1168–1170

Rurik Rostislavich, 1170–1171

Yuri Andreevich, 1171–1175

Sviatoslav Mstislavich, 1175–1176

Mstislav the Eyeless (2nd time), 1177

Yaroslav Mstislavich, 1177

Mstislav the Eyeless (3rd time), 1177–1178

Yaropolk Rostislavich, 1178

Roman Rostislavich, 1178–1179

Mstislav Rostislavich ("the Bold"), 1179–1180

Vladimir Sviatoslavich, 1180–1181

Yaroslav Vladimirovich, 1182–1184

Mstislav-Boris Davidovich, 1184–1187

Yaroslav Vladimirovich (2nd time), 1187–1196

Yaropolk Yaroslavich, 1197

Yaroslav Vladimirovich (3rd time), 1197–1199

Sviatoslav Vsevolodich, 1200–1205

Konstantin Vsevolodich, 1205–1207

Sviatoslav Vsevolodich (2nd time), 1207–1210

Mstislav Mstislavich, 1210–1215

Yaroslav II of Vladimir, 1215–1216

Mstislav Mstislavich (2nd time), 1216–1218

Sviatoslav Mstislavich, 1218–1219

Vsevolod Mstislavich, 1219–1221

Vsevolod Yurevich (Dmitry), 1221

Yaroslav II of Vladimir (2nd time), 1221–1223

Vsevolod Yurevich (2nd time), 1223–1224

Michael of Chernigov, 1225

Yaroslav II of Vladimir (3rd time), 1224–1228

Fedor Yaroslavich, 1228–1229

Alexander Nevsky, 1228–1229

Michael of Chernigov (2nd time), 1229

Rostislav Mikhailovich, 1229–1230

Yaroslav II of Vladimir (4th time), 1230–1236

Alexander Nevsky (2nd time), 1236–1240

Andrey II of Vladimir, 1240–1241

Alexander Nevsky (3rd time), 1241–1252

Vasily Aleksandrovich, 1252–1255

Yaroslav of Tver, 1255

Vasily Aleksandrovich (2nd time), 1255–1258

Alexander Nevsky (4th time), 1258–1260

Dmitry of Pereslavl, 1260–1263

Vasily of Kostroma, 1264–1272

Dmitry of Pereslavl (2nd time), 1272–1273

Vasily of Kostroma (2nd time), 1273–1276

Dmitry of Pereslavl (3rd time), 1276–1281

Andrey of Gorodets, 1281–1285

Dmitry of Pereslavl (4th time), 1285–1292

Andrey of Gorodets (2nd time), 1292–1304

Mikhail of Tver, 1308–1314

Afanasiy Danilovich, 1314–1315

Mikhail of Tver (2nd time), 1315–1316

Afanasiy Danilovich (2nd time), 1318–1322

Yury of Moscow, 1322–1325

Alexander of Tver, 1325–1327

Ivan I of Moscow (''Kalita'', "the Money-bag"), 1328–1337

Simeon of Moscow, 1346–1353

Ivan II of Moscow, 1355–1359

Dmitry of Suzdal, 1359–1363

Dmitry Donskoy, 1363–1389

Lengvenis of Lithuania, 1389–1392, 1406–1411

Vasily I of Moscow, 1408–1425

Vasily II of Moscow, 1425–1462

Jonas Vladimiraitis of Lithuania, Duke of Bely (1444–1446)

Ivan III of Moscow ("the Great"), 1462–1478

Grand Princes of Vladimir-Suzdal (1168–1389)

Andrei Bogolyubsky (1168–1174), first Grand Prince of Vladimir, son of Yuri Dolgoruki

Mikhail of Vladimir (1174–1176), son of Yuri Dolgoruki

Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176–1212), eleventh son of Yuri Dolgoruky

Yuri II of Vladimir (1212–1216), third son of Vsevolod the Big Nest

Konstantin of Rostov (1216–1218), the eldest son of Vsevolod the Big Nest

Yuri II of Vladimir (1218–1238), restored

Yaroslav II of Vladimir (1239–1246), fourth son of Vsevolod the Big Nest

Sviatoslav III of Vladimir (1246–1248), sixth son of Vsevolod the Big Nest

Mikhail Khorobrit (1248), fourth son of Yaroslav II

Andrey II of Vladimir (1248–1252), third son of Yaroslav II

Alexander Nevsky (1252–1263), second son of Yaroslav II

Yaroslav of Tver (1264–1271), sixth son of Yaroslav II

Vasily of Kostroma (1272–1277), the youngest son of Yaroslav II

Dmitry of Pereslavl (1277–1294), second son of Alexander Nevsky

Andrey of Gorodets (1294–1304), son of Alexander Nevsky

Michael of Tver (1304–1318), second son of Yaroslav of Tver

Yuri of Moscow (1318–1322), the eldest son of Daniel of Moscow

Dmitry of Tver (Dmitry the Terrible Eyes) (1322–1326)

Alexander of Tver (1326–1327)

Ivan I of Moscow (Ivan the Moneybag) (1328–1341)

Simeon of Moscow (Simeon the Proud) (1 hour)

Ivan II of Moscow (Ivan the Fair) (1353–1359)

Dmitry of Suzdal (1359–1362)

Dmitry Donskoy (1363–1389)

Grand Princes of Tver (1246–1485)

Yaroslav of Tver, 1246–1271

Sviatoslav of Tver, 1271–1285

Michael the Saint, 1285–1318

Dmitry the Terrible Eyes, 1318–1326

Alexander I of Tver, 1326–1328

Konstantin of Tver, 1328–1338

Alexander I of Tver, (2nd time) 1338–1339

Konstantin of Tver, (2nd time) 1339–1346

Vsevolod of Tver, 1346–1349

Vasily of Kashin, 1349–1368

Mikhail II of Tver, 1368–1399

Ivan of Tver, 1399–1425

Alexander II of Tver, 1425

Yury of Tver, 1425

Boris the Great, 1425–1461

Mikhail III the Exile, 1461–1485

Grand Princes of Moscow (1283–1547)

:''Honour monopolized by rulers of Moscow principality, but see also Grand Prince (of Lithuania)''

Rurik Dynasty

{|class="wikitable" |- ! Monarch ! Portrait ! Birth ! Marriage(s) ! Became Prince ! Died (ceased to be Prince) |- |Daniel|| 100px || 1261son of Alexander Nevsky || Maria6 children || 1283 || 4 March 1303 |- |Yuriy|| 100px || 1281son of Prince Daniel and Maria || Konchaka (sister of Uzbeg Khan)no children || 4 March 1303 || 21 November 1325 |- |Ivan I ''Kalita (the Moneybag)''|| 100px || 1288son of Prince Daniel and Maria || Helena9 children || 21 November 1325 || 31 March 1340 |- |Simeon ''the Proud''|| 100px || 7 November 1316son of Prince Ivan I and Helena || Anastasia of Lithuaniano childrenEuphraxia of Smolenskno childrenMaria of Tver4 sons (died young) || 31 March 1340 || 27 April 1353 |- |Ivan II|| 100px || 30 March 1326son of Prince Ivan I and Helena || Fedosia Dmitrievna of Bryanskno childrenAlexandra Ivanovna Velyaminova4 children || 27 April 1353 || 13 November 1359 |- |Dmitry I ''of the Don''|| 100px || 12 October 1350son of Prince Ivan II and Alexandra Ivanovna || Eudoxia Dmitrievna of Nizhny Novgorod12 children || 13 November 1359 || 19 May 1389 |- |Vasiliy I|| 100px || 30 December 1371son of Prince Dmitry I and Eudoxia Dmitrievna || Sophia of Lithuania9 children || 19 May 1389 || 27 February 1425 |- |Vasiliy II ''Tyomniy (the Blind)''|| 100px || 10 March 1415son of Prince Vasiliy I and Sophia of Lithuania || Maria Yaroslavna of Borovsk3 children || 27 February 1425 || 27 March 1462 |- |Ivan III ''the Great''|| 100px || 22 January 1440son of Prince Vasiliy II and Maria Yaroslavna || Maria Borisovna of Tverone sonSophia Palaiologina8 children || 5 April 1462 || 6 November 1505 |- |Vasiliy III || 100px || 25 March 1479son of Prince Ivan III and Sophie Palaiologina || Solomonia Yuryevna Saburovano childrenElana Vasilyevna Glinskaya2 sons || 6 November 1505 || 13 December 1533 |- |Ivan IV ''the Terrible''|| 100px || 25 August 1530son of Prince Vasili III and Elena Glinskaya || ''unmarried as Prince'' || 13 December 1533 || 28 March 1584 (title of Grand Prince replaced by Tsar on 26 January 1547) |}

Tsars of Russia (1547–1721)

Rurik Dynasty

{|class="wikitable" |- ! Monarch ! Portrait ! Born ! Marriage(s) ! Became Tsar ! Died (ceased to be Tsar) |- |Ivan IV ''the Terrible''|| 100px || 25 August 1530son of Prince Vasili III and Elena Glinskaya || Anastasia Romanovna Zakharyina-Yurieva6 childrenMaria Temryukovnaone son (died young)Marfa Vasilevna SobakinaAnna Alexeievna KoltovskayaAnna VasilchikovaVasilisa MelentyevaMaria DolgorukayaMaria Feodorovna Nagayaone son || 26 January 1547 || 28 March 1584 |- |Feodor I|| 100px || 31 May 1557 || Irina Feodorovna Godunovaone daughter (died young) || 28 March 1584 || 17 January 1598 |}

Time of Troubles (1598–1613)

:''Dates are listed in the Old Style, which continued to be used in Russia.'' {|class="wikitable" |- ! Monarch ! Portrait ! Family ! Born ! Marriage ! Became Tsar ! Ceased to be Tsar ! Died |- |Boris Godunov|| 100px || Godunov || c.1551son of Feodor Ivanovich Godunov and Stepanida || Maria Grigorievna Skuratova-Belskaya2 children || 21 February 1598 || colspan="2"|13 April 1605 |- |Feodor II|| 100px || Godunov || 1589son of Tsar Boris and Maria Grigorievna || unmarried || 13 April 1605 || colspan="2"|1 June 1605 |- |Dmitry IIknown asFalse Dmitry I|| 100px || usurper (claimed to be of the Rurik dynasty) || c. 1581 || Marina Mniszechno children || 1 June 1605 || 17 May 1606 || 27 May 1606 |- |Vasiliy IV|| 100px || Shuysky (a branch of the Rurik dynasty) || 22 September 1552 || unmarried || 19 May 1606 || 27 July 1610 || 12 September 1612 |- |Dmitry IIIknown asFalse Dmitry II|| 100px || usurper (claimed to be of the Rurik dynasty) || c. 1582 || Marina Mniszechone son (posthumous) || 10 July 1607 || 11 December 1610 || 21 December 1610 |- |Dmitry IVknown asFalse Dmitry III|| 100px || usurper (claimed to be of the Rurik dynasty) || ''unknown'' || ''unknown'' || 28 March 1611 || 18 May 1612 || c. 1612 |}

Council of Seven Boyars (27 July 1610 – 4 November 1612)

The Seven Boyars (the ''Boyar Duma''), a group of the highest Russian nobles, deposed the tsar Vasily IV on , and recognized the Polish prince Władysław IV Vasa as the new tsar on . The Poles entered Moscow on :

Prince Fedor Puto Ivanovich Mstislavsky (the leader of the group)

Prince Andrey Vasilyevich Troubetskoy

Prince Boris Mikhailovich Lykov-Obolensky

Prince Ivan Mikhailovich Vorotynsky (to March 1611)

Prince Vasily Vasilyevich Golitsyn (to 8 April 1611)

Boyar Ivan Nikitich Romanov

Boyar Fedor Ivanovich Sheremetev

Later, the members of the council were also:

Mikhail Fedorovich Nagoy (from March 1611)

Ivan Semenovich Kurakin (from 8 April 1611)

The Deeds of the Seven Boyars had existed until the Poles were driven from Moscow on .

House of Vasa

{|class="wikitable" |- ! Monarch ! Portrait ! Born ! Marriage ! Became Tsar ! Ceased to be Tsar ! Died |- |Vladislaus|| 100px || 9 June 1595, Łobzów, near Kraków, Poland || Cecilia Renata of Austriano childrenMarie Louise Gonzagano children || 6 September 1610 || 4 November 1612 (deposed)14 June 1634 (resigned his claim) || 20 May 1648 Merkinė, Lithuania |}

Council of All the Land (17 April 1611 – 26 July 1613)

(In opposition to the Poles and Władysław IV Vasa):

Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky

Prince Dmitry Timofeyevich Troubetskoy

Prokopy Petrovich Lyapunov (to 1 August 1611)

Ataman Ivan Martynovich Zarutsky (to 7 August 1612)

House of Romanov

{|class="wikitable" |- ! Monarch ! Portrait ! Birth ! Marriages ! Tsar From ! Tsar Until ! Death |- |Michael I|| 100px || 12 July 1596Moscowson of Feodor Nikitich Romanov and Kseniya Ioannovna Shestova || Maria Vladimirovna Dolgorukova1624one stillborn childEudoxia Lukyanovna Streshneva5 February 1626ten children||26 July 1613||14 July 1645 || 14 July 1645Moscowaged 49 |- |Alexis I||100px || 9 May 1629Moscowson of Tsar Michael I and Eudoxia Lukyanova Streshneva || Maria Ilyinichna Miloslavskaya17 January 164813 childrenNatalia Kirillovna Naryshkina1 February 16713 children||14 July 1645||29 January 1676 || 29 January 1676Moscowaged 46 |- |Feodor III|| 100px || 9 June 1661Moscowson of Tsar Alexis I and Maria Ilyinichna Miloslavskaya || Agaphia Simeonovna Grushevskaya28 July 1680one sonMarfa Matveievna Apraksina24 February 1682no children||29 January 1676||7 May 1682 || 7 May 1682Moscowaged 20 |- |Ivan V''jointly with Peter I'' || 100px || 6 September 1666Moscowson of Tsar Alexis I and Maria Ilyinichina Miloslavskaya || Praskovia Feodorovna Saltykova16845 daughters ||2 June 1682||8 February 1696|| 8 February 1696aged 29 |- |Peter I ''the Great''''jointly with Ivan V 1682-1696'' || 100px || 9 June 1672Moscowson of Tsar Alexis I and Natalia Kirillovna Naryshkina || Eudoxia Feodorovna Lopukhina16893 childrenMarta Helena Skowrońska17079 children ||7 May 1682||2 November 1721|| 8 February 1725aged 52 |}

Emperors of Russia (1721–1917)

''(Also Grand Princes of Finland from 1809 until 1917; and Kings of Poland from 1815 until 1916)''

The monarchs listed below reigned with absolute power until 1905, and then with executive and administrative powers from 1905-1917.

House of Romanov

{|class="wikitable" |- ! Monarch ! Portrait ! Birth ! Marriages ! Emperor From ! Emperor Until ! Death |- |Peter I ''the Great''|| 100px || 9 June 1672Moscowson of Tsar Alexei and Natalia Kirillovna Naryshkina || Eudoxia Feodorovna Lopukhina16893 childrenMarta Helena Skowrońska17079 children ||1682||8 February 1725|| 8 February 1725aged 52 |- |Catherine I|| 100px || 15 April 1684Ringen (Rõngu), Duchy of Livoniadaughter of Samuel Skowroński and Elisabeth Moritz || Peter I of Russia17079 children ||8 February 1725||17 May 1727||17 May 1727Saint Petersburgaged 43 |- |Peter II || 100px || 23 October 1715Saint Petersburgson of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich and Princess Charlotte Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel || unmarried ||18 May 1727||30 January 1730||30 January 1730Moscowaged 14 |- |Anna || 100px || 7 February 1693Moscowdaughter of Tsar Ivan V and Praskovia Feodorovna Saltykova || Frederick Wilhelm, Duke of CourlandNovember 1710no children ||13 February 1730||28 October 1740||28 October 1740aged 47 |- |Ivan VI || 100px || 23 August 1740Saint Petersburgson of Duke Anthony Ulrich of Brunswick and Grand Duchess Anna Leopoldovna of Russia || unmarried ||28 October 1740||6 December 1741|| 16 July 1764Shlisselburg (murdered)aged 23 |- |Elizabeth || 100px || 29 December 1709Kolomenskoyedaughter of Emperor Peter I and Empress Catherine I || Alexey Razumovsky1742no children ||6 December 1741||5 January 1762|| 5 January 1762aged 52 |- |Peter III || 100px || 21 February 1728Kiel, Schleswig-Holsteinson of Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp and Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna || Princess Sophie Friederike Auguste of Anhalt-Zerbst16 August 1745one son ||5 January 1762||9 July 1762|| 17 July 1762 (murdered)Ropshaaged 34 |- |Catherine II ''the Great'' || 100px || 2 May 1729Stettin, Kingdom of Prussia, Holy Roman Empiredaughter of Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst and Princess Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp || Peter III of Russia16 August 1745one son ||9 July 1762||6 November 1796||6 November 1796Saint Petersburgaged 67 |- |Paul I || 100px || 1 October 1754Saint Petersburgson of Emperor Peter III and Empress Catherine II || Princess Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt29 September 1773one stillborn daughterPrincess Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg26 September 1776ten children||17 November 1796 ||11 March 1801|| 11 March 1801 (assassinated)Saint Michael's Castle, Saint Petersburgaged 46 |- |Alexander I ''the Blessed'' || 100px || 23 December 1777Saint Petersburgson of Emperor Paul I and Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg) || Princess Louise of Baden28 September 17932 daughters ||24 March 1801||1 December 1825||1 December 1825Taganrogaged 47 |- |''Constantine I (disputed)'' || 100px || 27 April 1779Tsarskoye Seloson of Emperor Paul I and Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg) || Princess Juliane of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld26 Februaryno children ||1 December 1825||26 December 1825|| 27 June 1831Vitebskaged 52 |- |Nicholas I || 100px || 6 July 1796Gatchinason of Emperor Paul I and Maria Feodorovna (Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg) || Princess Charlotte of Prussia13 July 18177 children ||26 December 1825||2 March 1855||2 March 1855Saint Petersburgaged 58 |- |Alexander II ''the Liberator'' || 100px || 29 April 1818Moscowson of Emperor Nicholas I and Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia) || Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine16 April 18418 children ||2 March 1855||13 March 1881||13 March 1881 (assassinated)Saint Petersburgaged 62 |- |Alexander III ''the Peace-Maker'' || 100px || 10 March 1845Saint Petersburgson of Emperor Alexander II and Maria Alexandrovna (Marie of Hesse) || Princess Dagmar of Denmark9 November 18666 children ||13 March 1881||1 November 1894|| 1 November 1894Livadiya, Crimeaaged 49 |- |Nicholas II || 100px || 6 May 1868Tsarskoye Seloson of Emperor Alexander III and Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark) || Princess Alix of Hesse and by Rhine26 November 18945 children ||1 November 1894||15 March 1917|| 17 July 1918 (executed)Yekaterinburg, Russian SFSRaged 50 |- |''Michael II (disputed)'' || 100px || 22 November 1878Tsarskoye Seloson of Emperor Alexander III and Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark) || Natalia Brassova15 October 1911one son ''(born before his parents' marriage)'' ||15 March 1917||16 March 1917|| 12 June 1918 (murdered)Perm, Russian SFSRaged 39 |}

See List of leaders of Russia for the continuation of leadership.

Pretenders to the Russian throne since 1917

Nicholas II (1917–1918)

Vacant (1918–1924)

Cyril Vladimirovich, Grand Duke of Russia (1924–1938) of the Alexandrovichi Branch

Vladimir Cyrillovich, Grand Duke of Russia (1938–1992)

Maria Vladimirovna, Grand Duchess of Russia (1992–Present) of the Vladimirovichi branch

*Grand Duke George Mikhailovich of Russia, heir apparent and son of Maria Vladimirovna, of the Vladimirovichi branch.

Nicholas Romanov, Prince of Russia (1992–Present) of the Nikolaevichi branch

*Prince Dimitri Romanovich of Russia, heir apparent and brother of Nicholas Romanov

See Line of succession to the Russian throne

See also

Rulers of Russia family tree

Timeline of Russian history

Coronation of the Russian monarch

List of Russian consorts

References

External links

Godunov to Nicholas II by Saul Zaklad

Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal

Timeline of Russian Emperors and Empresses

History of Russian imperial titles. Bibliography

Russia Rulers Russia Category:History of Russia Category:Russian Empire Russia

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