A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states.

Many anthropologists use the term ''tribal society'' to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups (see clan and kinship).

Some theorists hold that tribes represent a stage in social evolution intermediate between bands and states. Other theorists argue that tribes developed after, and must be understood in terms of their relationship to, states.

== Etymology ==

The English word ''tribe'' occurs in 13th-century Middle English literature as referring to one of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. The word is from Old French ''tribu'', in turn from Latin ''tribus'', referring to the original tripartite ethnic division of the Roman state: Ramnes (''Ramnenses''), Tities (''Titienses''), and ''Luceres'', corresponding, according to Varro, to the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans respectively. The Ramnes were named after Romulus, leader of the Latins, Tities after Tatius, leader of the Sabines, and Luceres after Lucumo, leader of an Etruscan army that had assisted the Latins. According to Livy, the three tribes were in fact squadrons of knights, rather than ethnic divisions.

The term's ultimate etymology might be found, with some likelihood,with the Latin word for three, ''tres''. The dative and ablative declensions of this word are both ''tribus''. The word ''tribus'' could therefore mean "from the three" or "for the three."

Another theory holds that ''tribus'' is perhaps derived from the Proto-Indo-European roots ''*tri-'' ("three") and ''*bhew-'' ("to be").

In 242–240 BC, the Tribal Assembly (''comitia tributa'') in the Roman Republic was organized in 35 Tribes (four "Urban Tribes" and 31 "Rural Tribes"). The Latin word as used in the Bible translates as Greek ''phyle'' "race, tribe, clan" and ultimately the Hebrew שבט () or "sceptre". In the historical sense, "tribe," "race" and "clan" can be used interchangeably.

Evolution

Considerable debate takes place over how best to characterize tribes. This partly stems from perceived differences between pre-state tribes and contemporary tribes; some reflects more general controversy over cultural evolution and colonialism. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a way of life that predates, and is more "natural", than that in modern states. Tribes also privilege primordial social ties, are clearly bounded, homogeneous, parochial, and stable. Thus, many believed that tribes organize links between families (including clans and lineages), and provide them with a social and ideological basis for solidarity that is in some way more limited than that of an "ethnic group" or of a "nation". Anthropological and ethnohistorical research has challenged all of these notions.

Anthropologist Elman Service presented a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state. This system of classification contains four categories:

# Gatherer-hunter bands, which are generally egalitarian. # Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige (see Chiefdom). # Stratified tribal societies led by chieftains. # Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.

In his 1972 study, ''The Notion of the Tribe'', anthropologist Morton H. Fried provided numerous examples of tribes the members of which spoke different languages and practised different rituals, or that shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes. Similarly, he provided examples of tribes where people followed different political leaders, or followed the same leaders as members of other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by fluid boundaries and heterogeneity, are not parochial, and are dynamic.

Fried, however, proposed that most contemporary tribes do not have their origin in pre-state tribes, but rather in pre-state bands. Such "secondary" tribes, he suggested, actually came about as modern products of state expansion. Bands comprise small, mobile, and fluid social formations with weak leadership, that do not generate surpluses, pay no taxes and support no standing army. Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways. First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control costs too much. States would encourage (or require) people on their frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have a leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the so-called "scheduled" tribes of the United States or of British India provide good examples of this). Second, bands could form "secondary" tribes as a means to defend themselves against state expansion. Members of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support a standing army that could fight against states, and they would have a leadership that could co-ordinate economic production and military activities.

In some countries, such as the United States of America and India, tribes are polities that have been granted legal recognition and limited autonomy by the state.

Archeologists continue to explore the development of pre-state tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to coordinate production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting or constraining people during times of surplus.

References

Benveniste, Émile

*''Indo-European Language and Society'', translated by Elizabeth Palmer. London: Faber and Faber 1973. ISBN 0-87024-250-4.

*''Origines de la formation des noms en indo-européen'', 1935.

Fried, Morton H. ''The Notion of Tribe''. Cummings Publishing Company, 1975. ISBN 0-8465-1548-2

Helm, June, ed, 1968. Essays on the Problem of Tribe, Proceedings, American Ethnological Society, 1967 (Seattle: University of Washington Press).

Nagy, Gregory, ''Greek Mythology and Poetics'', Cornell University Press, 1990. In chapter 12, beginning on p. 276, Professor Nagy explores the meaning of the word origin and social context of a tribe in ancient Greece and beyond.

Sutton,Imre, ''Indian Land Tenure: Bibliographical Essays and a Guide to the Literature'' (NY: Clearwater, 1975): tribe—pp. 101–02,180-82, 186-87, 191-93.

External links

Chiefdom: Precursor of the Tribe?

Oldest organization in Asia protecting tribal culture

Moroccan Tribes

Category:Ethnology

ar:قبيلة gn:Te'ýi az:Tayfa bn:উপজাতি bg:Племе ca:Tribu (antropologia) cs:Kmen (sociologie) cy:Llwyth de:Volksstamm el:Φυλή es:Tribu eo:Tribo eu:Tribu fa:قبیله fo:Ættbólkur fr:Tribu (ethnologie) gl:Tribo ko:부족 hi:जनजाति hr:Pleme io:Tribuo it:Tribù he:שבט sw:Kabila ku:Hoz li:Sjtam (antropologie) arz:قبيله nl:Stam (antropologie) ja:部族 pl:Plemię pt:Tribo ro:Trib ru:Племя si:ගෝත්‍ර simple:Tribe sk:Kmeň (etnografia) sl:Pleme sr:Племе sh:Pleme fi:Heimo (kansatiede) sv:Stam (samhällsvetenskap) ta:பழங்குடிகள் te:తెగలు tr:Boy (antropoloji) uk:Плем'я yi:שבט (געזעלשאפט) bat-smg:Gentis zh:部落

Coordinates	35°0′41.69″N135°46′5.47″N
name	Rachel Brice
background	group_or_band
birth date	June 15, 1972
birth place	San Francisco, California, USA
associated acts	The Indigo Belly Dance Company Bellydance Superstars
website	RachelBrice.com }}

Rachel Brice is a contemporary innovator in Tribal Fusion Style Belly Dance based in San Francisco. She is the artistic director and choreographer for The Indigo Belly Dance Company and a frequent performer with the Bellydance Superstars.

She has performed and toured nationally and internationally since 1990. As a member of the Bellydance Superstars Brice made numerous appearances on Bellydance Superstars DVDs, as well as a multitude of television and radio appearances worldwide, most notably Live with Regis and Kelly in the US and Blue Peter in England.

As a teacher and movement arts pedagogue, Brice has released instructional videos focusing on Yoga and Belly Dance, and has given workshops throughout the United States and Europe. Brice also teaches Yoga and Belly Dance for Pixar Animation Studios.

From Brice's website:

"Rachel Brice first fell in love with Belly Dance after watching the famous Hahbi'Ru at the Northern California Renaissance Faire in 1988 and began taking classes right away. In 1999, she decided to study full time, and relocated for the University program in Dance Ethnology at San Francisco State University.

In 2003 she was discovered by rock mogul Miles Copeland and began touring internationally with his company, Bellydance Superstars. Also in 2003 she founded The Indigo Belly Dance Company.

2007 marks The Indigo's first full-length touring show, Le Serpent Rouge, presented by Miles Copeland. When home, Rachel studies Belly Dance with her teachers Suhaila Salimpour, and creator of American Tribal Style, Carolena Nericcio, and Yoga with Gary Kraftsow."

Filmography

Performance

"Bellydance Superstars Live in Paris: Folies Bergeres"

"Bellydance Superstars Solos in Monte Carlo"

"Bellydance Superstars"

Instructional

"Tribal Fusion: Yoga, Isolations and Drills a Practice Companion with Rachel Brice"

"Rachel Brice: Belly Dance Arms and Posture"

"SERPENTINE: With World Dance New York"

Musical collaborations

"Sa'iyr - A Tribal Metamorphosis" (2005) - Pentaphobe (also known as "A Tribal Metamorphosis")

"Bellydance Superstars volume 1" - Musical Selection

"Bellydance Superstars volume 2" - Musical Selection

"Bellydance Superstars volume 3" - Musical Selection

"Le Serpent Rouge: Musical Selections from the Knockdown Revue" - Compilation

External links

Rachel Brice website

The Indigo Belly Dance Company website

BDSS on "Live with Regis & Kelly video clip (with Amar Gamal, Rachel Brice and Ansuya) Friday 9-10am E/T April 8, 2005

Bellydance Superstars website

"Snakecharmer" video

Rachel Brice interview in Japan Times, August 3, 2005 by Giovanni Fazio '"Tribal Power: Bellydance superstar Rachel Brice"'

London Sunday Times Magazine review of Rachel Brice and the Bellydance Superstars, October 10, 2004 "Shake, Ripple, and Roll"

Category:Living people Category:Belly dancers Category:1972 births

es:Rachel Brice fr:Rachel Brice sv:Rachel Brice

John Trudell (born February 15, 1946) is a Native American-Mexican author, poet, actor, musician, and former political activist. He was the spokesperson for the United Indians of All Tribes' takeover of Alcatraz beginning in 1969, broadcasting as ''Radio Free Alcatraz''. During most of the 1970s, he served as the chairman of the American Indian Movement, based in Minneapolis, Minnesota.

After his pregnant wife, three children and mother-in-law were killed in 1979 in a fire at the home of his parents-in-law on the Shoshone-Paiute Tribes Duck Valley Indian Reservation in Nevada, Trudell turned to writing, music and film as a second career. He acted in three films in the 1990s. The documentary ''Trudell'' (2005) was made about him and his life as an activist and artist.

Early life and education

Trudell was born in Omaha, Nebraska on February 15, 1946. Son of a Santee Sioux father and a Mexican mother, he grew up in small towns near the Santee Sioux Reservation in northern Nebraska near the southwest corner of South Dakota. He was educated in local schools and also in Santee Sioux culture.

Military service

In 1963 when 17 years old, Trudell dropped out of high school and left the Midwest by joining the US Navy. He served during the early years of the Vietnam War and stayed in the Navy until 1967.

Afterward, he attended college in San Bernardino, studying radio and broadcasting. He decided to work through political activism.

Political activism

After leaving the military, Trudell had become involved in Indian activism. In 1969, he became the spokesperson for the United Indians of All Tribes' occupation of Alcatraz Island. This was a mostly student-member group that had developed in San Francisco. Trudell went to Alcatraz a week after the occupation started. He used his background in broadcasting and ran a radio station from the island through a cooperative arrangement with students at the University of California, Berkeley, broadcasting at night over the Berkley FM station. The show was called ''Radio Free Alcatraz''. He discussed the cause of the occupation and American Indian issues, and played traditional Native American music. He criticized how "the system today is only geared toward white needs." He spoke for the many Indians who believed they did not fit in with the then majority European-American population of the nation. He became a spokesperson for the occupation specifically and for the Alcatraz-Red Power Movement generally, as the author Vine DeLoria named it. Trudell was the spokesman for the nearly two-year long occupation, until 1971.

After the failure of the federal government to meet demands of the protesters at Alcatraz, Trudell joined the American Indian Movement. It had been established in 1968 in Minneapolis among urban American Indians, first to deal with police harassment and injustice in the law enforcement system. Although never officially elected, Trudell acted as its national chairman from 1973 until 1979. He took the position after the first chairman, Carter Camp, was convicted for actions related to a protest and was sentenced to jail.

In 1975 Trudell was arrested on charges of assault, felonious assault and assault with a deadly weapon. He had gone to a reservation trading post to try to get better food for senior residents. He tried to pay using food stamps, but the trading post did not accept them. The police report said that he fired a shot inside the store.

On 12 February 1979, Trudell lost his wife Tina Manning and their three children, and his mother-in-law Leah Hicks-Manning in a suspicious fire at the home of his parents-in-law on the Duck Valley Indian Reservation in Nevada. His father-in-law Arthur Manning survived. He was a member of the Shoshone-Paiute Tribal Council who was working for treaty rights. Opponents included the local tribal police chief and the BIA superintendent, John Artichoker. Leah coordinated social services at the reservation. Tina had been working for tribal water rights at the Wildhorse Reservoir. Opponents of her campaign included officials of the local BIA, Elko County and Nevada state officials, members of the water recreation industry, and local European-American ranchers.

Trudell believed that the fire was arson, but the BIA police investigation found that it was accidental. It occurred soon after he had been leading a demonstration in Washington, DC. Trudell believed that the fire was meant to threaten and silence him and his activist wife. In numerous interviews, he has expressed distrust for the federal government and specifically the FBI.

Marriage and family

In 1972 Trudell married Tina Manning, an activist of the Shoshone-Paiute Tribe. They had three children together: Ricarda Star (girl, age five), Sunshine Karma {girl, three), and Eli Changing Sun (one). In February 1979 Tina (who was pregnant) and the children, and her mother Leah Hicks-Manning, were all killed in a fire at her parents' house on the Duck Valley Reservation. Her father Arthur survived. Trudell was out of town.

Musical career

In 1979, Trudell met Jackson Browne and became interested in the musical world. Trudell recorded an album, ''A.K.A Graffiti Man'', with the Kiowa guitarist Jesse Ed Davis. It was first available only on cassette tape. In 1992 Trudell remade ''A.K.A Graffiti Man''. More recent releases include ''Blue Indians'' (1999) and ''Bone Days''.

Writing career

About six months after the deaths of his family, Trudell started writing. He uses poetry and writing: “They’re called poems but in reality they’re lines given to me to hang on to.” He has written many poems, including "Baby Boom Che" and "Rant and Roll". He sets his poetry as lyrics for recordings, for which in 1982 he began using traditional Indian music. He published a book, ''Lines From a Mined Mind: The Words of John Trudell'' (2008), a collection of 25 years of poetry, lyrics and essays.

In late 1988, Midnight Oil took Trudell (as Grafitti Man) on tour with them for ''From Diesel and Dust to the Big Mountain''. They billed themselves as a Native American activist performance act. They played traditional instruments, sang in native American languages, and accompanied the songs with heavy Hendrix-style guitar. This brought Trudell to a new and larger audience.

Trudell toured in 1993 with Peter Gabriel's WOMAD tour. He was billed as John Trudell, performing his traditional songs and reading his poetry.

Film career

Trudell created a career as an actor, performing in roles in ''Thunderheart'' (1992), ''On Deadly Ground'' (1995) and ''Smoke Signals'' (1998). He was an adviser to the production of ''Incident at Oglala'', directed by Michael Apted and produced by Robert Redford. A kind of companion piece to the fictional ''Thunderheart'', the 1992 documentary explores facts related to the 1975 shooting of two FBI agents at the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, for which Leonard Peltier was convicted in 1976.

The filmmaker Heather Rae spent more than a decade making a documentary about Trudell, which was released in 2005. Her intent in ''Trudell'' (2005) was to demonstrate how his political and cultural activities were tied to contemporary history and inspired people. The film premiered at the 2005 Sundance Film Festival in the U.S. documentary competition. The movie has received a mixed response among film critics and viewers. Some claimed it to be thought-provoking and touching, while others suggested Rae made a one-dimensional biopic. The song used at the end of the film is "Johnny Lobo" by Kris Kristofferson, from his ''A Moment of Forever''.

Discography

John Trudell has appeared on the following albums:

1983 ''Tribal Voice''

1986 ''Original A.K.A. Graffiti Man''

1987 ''...But This Isn't El Salvador''

1987 ''Heart Jump Bouquet''

1991 ''Fables and Other Realities''

1992 ''Child's Voice: Children of the Earth''

1992 ''A.K.A. Graffiti Man''

1994 ''Johnny Damas & Me''

1999 ''Blue Indians''

2001 ''Descendant Now Ancestor''

2001 ''Bone Days'' (produced by the actress Angelina Jolie)

2007 ''Madness & The Moremes'' (double album)

His music draws from a blend of styles, including rock, blues and native beats, pop and political protest songs. He also draws from his own poetry. His music can be both insightful and funny.

Controversy

In 2004, Trudell testified in the federal trial of Arlo Looking Cloud, a Lakota AIM member charged in the kidnapping and murder of Anna Mae Aquash, the highest-ranking woman in AIM, in December 1975. Trudell repeated Looking Cloud's having told him that John Graham, another low-level AIM member, was the gunman in the murder; Trudell also identified Graham from photographs. Looking Cloud was convicted in 2004 and sentenced to life imprisonment.

This was part of the evidence considered by the Canadian judge who ordered Graham's extradition to the United States in February 2005. On 2 March 2005, the Native Youth Movement Vancouver announced a boycott of John Trudell's music and poetry in retaliation for his testimony, and alleged that the FBI had killed Aquash. In early 2006, the political newsletter ''Counterpunch'' published an article by Michael Donnelly; he explored the issues related to the murder of Aquash and why Trudell's testimony should be considered substantive. In 2010, Graham was convicted in a South Dakota court of felony murder of Aquash and sentenced to life imprisonment.

References

Lee Kimberly, "Heartspeak from the Spirit Songs of John Trudell, Keith Secola, and Robbie Robertson", ''Studies in American Indian Literature'', Access provided by University of Illinois @ Urbana-Champaign

Richard Burke, "What Tribe? Whose Island?", JSTOR provided by University of Illinois

Liz Cook, "Some Thoughts About Biography", pp. 73-74, ''Wicazo Sa Review,'' Vol. 10, No. 1 (Spring, 1994)

Louis Heath, "No Rock Is an Island No Rock Is an Island", ''The Phi Delta Kappan,'' Vol. 52, No. 7 (Mar., 1971), pp. 397–399

King, Frank J., III. "A Native Voice Visit Activist/Actor/Artist John Trudell", University of Michigan

John Trudell, allmusic.com

''Akwesasne Notes'' (1975–1989). Rooseveltown: Aug 31, 1975. Vol. 7, Iss. 3; p. 14

External links

Official John Trudell website

[ Biography at Allmusic.com]

''Trudell'', Documentary Website

A selection of written works, including "We Are Power", 1980, and excerpts from _Stickman_ by Paola Igliori with Trudell

Several audio files on indymedia of Trudell

''Trudell'', reviews on ''Rotten Tomatoes''

"Interview with John Trudell", ''Rain Taxi Review of Books''

Category:American Indian Movement Category:Native American activists Category:Native American actors Category:Native American musicians Category:Native American writers Category:American people of Mexican descent Category:People from Omaha, Nebraska Category:Sioux people Category:1946 births Category:Living people

ca:John Trudell de:John Trudell ja:ジョン・トルーデル pl:John Trudell