__NOTOC__ Year 1884 (MDCCCLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar.

Events

January–March

January 4 – The Fabian Society is founded in London.

January 5 – Gilbert & Sullivan's ''Princess Ida'' has its première at the Savoy Theatre, London.

January 18 – Dr William Price attempts to cremate the body of his infant son, Iesu Grist (Jesus Christ) Price, setting a legal precedent for cremation in the U.K.

February 1 – The first edition of the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' is published.

February 5 – The Derby County Football Club is founded

February 7 – The Diocese of Madrid-Alcalá is founded.

March 13 – The siege of Khartoum, Sudan begins (ends on January 26, 1885).

April–June

April 22 – The Colchester earthquake, England, the UK's most destructive, occurs.

May 1 – The eight-hour workday is first proclaimed by the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions in the United States. May 1, called ''May Day'' or ''Labour Day'', is now a holiday recognized in almost every industrialized country.

June 4 – The Estonian flag is consecrated as the flag of the Estonian Students Society.

July–September

July 5 – Germany takes possession of Cameroon.

July 23 – Today's ''Courier'' records the first tennis tournaments held on the grounds of Shrubland Hall, Leamington Spa, England.

August 5 – The cornerstone for the Statue of Liberty is laid on Bedloe's Island in New York Harbor.

August 10 – A severe earthquake, magnitude 5.5, (intensity VII) occurs off the northeast Atlantic coast. The area affected extends from central Virginia to southern Maine, and west as far as Cleveland.

September 5 – Staten Island Academy is founded.

October–December

October – International Meridian Conference in Washington, D.C. fixes the Greenwich meridian as the world's prime meridian.

October 6 – The United States Naval War College is established in Newport, Rhode Island.

October 18 – The University of Wales, Bangor (UK) is founded.

October 22 – The first woman receives a degree from the Royal University of Ireland.

November 1 – The Irish Gaelic Athletic Association is founded in Thurles, Ireland.

November 2 – Timişoara is the first town of Europe with streets illuminated by electric light.

November 4 – United States presidential election, 1884: Democrat Grover Cleveland defeats Republican James G. Blaine in a very close contest to win the first of his non-consecutive terms.

November 15 – The Berlin Conference which regulates European colonisation and trade in Africa begins (ends February 26, 1885).

December 1

* American Old West: Near Frisco, New Mexico, deputy sheriff Elfego Baca holds off a gang of 80 Texan cowboys who want to kill him for arresting cowboy Charles McCarthy (the cowboys were terrorizing the area's Hispanos and Baca was working against them).

* Porfirio Díaz returns as President of Mexico, an office he will hold until 1911.

December 6 – The Washington Monument is completed.

December 16 – The World Cotton Centennial World's Fair opens in New Orleans, Louisiana.

Date unknown

The Stefan-Boltzmann law is reformulated by Ludwig Boltzmann.

Mexican General Manuel Mondragón creates the Mondragón Rifle the worlds first automatic rifle.

Mark Twain publishes ''The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn''.

The first ascent is made of Castle Mountain by geologist Arthur Philemon Coleman.

The water hyacinth is introduced in the U.S. and quickly becomes an invasive species.

Parliamentarism is introduced in Norway.

The Yellow Crane Tower last burns in Wuhan.

The Leicester City Football Club is formed.

The Third Reform Act gives the vote to almost every adult male in England.

1884–1885 – France conquers Vietnam.

Police training schools are established in every prefecture in Japan.

Reformers in Korea who admire the Meiji Restoration in Japan stage a coup with Japan's help. China intervens to rescue the king and help suppress the rebels. Afterward both China and Japan agree to withdraw their troops and military advisers.

The first Christian missionary arrives in Korea.

Depression (economics) in the USA.

Births

January–June

January 2 – Ben-Zion Dinur, Russian-born Israeli educator, historian and politician (d. 1973)

January 12

* Texas Guinan, American vaudeville performer (d. 1933)

* Charles Armijo Woodruff, 11th Governor of American Samoa (d. 1945)

January 13 – Sophie Tucker, Russian-born singer and comedian (d. 1966)

January 21 – Roger Nash Baldwin, American social activist (d. 1981)

January 23 – Ralph DePalma, Italian-born race car driver (d. 1956)

January 28 – Auguste Piccard, Swiss physicist, balloonist, and inventor (d. 1962)

January 30 – Kamiyama Sojin, Japanese actor in American silent films, (d. 1954)

January 31 – Theodor Heuss, German politician and publicist (d. 1963)

February 1 – Bradbury Robinson, who threw the first forward pass in American football history in 1906 (d. 1949)

February 8 – Burt Mustin, American actor (d. 1977)

February 10 – Frederick Hawksworth, GWR chief mechanical engineer (d. 1976)

February 12

* Max Beckmann, German painter and graphic artist (d. 1950)

* Marie Vassilieff, Russian artist (d. 1957)

* Johan Laidoner, seminal figure of Estonian history between the World Wars (d.1953)

February 13 – Alfred Carlton Gilbert, American athlete and inventor (d. 1961)

February 16 – Robert J. Flaherty, American filmmaker (d. 1951)

February 18 – Andrew Watson Myles, Canadian politician (d. 1970)

February 22 – Abe Attell, American boxer (d. 1970)

March 6 – R. Williams Parry, Welsh poet (d. 1956)

March 13 – Sir Hugh Walpole, English novelist (d. 1941)

March 17 – Alcide Nunez, American jazz musician (d. 1934)

March 24 – Peter Debye, Dutch chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1966)

March 25 – Georges Imbert, Alsatian chemist (d. 1950)

March 26 – Wilhelm Backhaus, German pianist (d. 1969)

March 27 – James Cruze, American motion picture director (d. 1942)

April 1 – Laurette Taylor, American stage actress (d. 1946)

April 4 – Isoroku Yamamoto, Japanese naval commander (d. 1943)

April 6 – Walter Huston, American actor (d. 1950)

April 7 – Bronisław Malinowski, Polish anthropologist (d. 1942)

April 12

* Otto Fritz Meyerhof, German-born physician and biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1951)

* Tenby Davies, Welsh half-mile world champion runner (d. 1932)

May 1 – Henry Norwest, Canadian World War I sniper (d. 1918)

May 8 – Harry S. Truman, 33rd President of the United States (d. 1972)

May 10 – Olga Petrova, English-born actress (d. 1977)

May 14 – Claudius Dornier, German aircraft designer (d. 1969)

May 21 – Manuel Pérez y Curis, Uruguayan poet (b. 1920)

May 27 – Max Brod, Austrian author (d. 1968)

May 28 – Edvard Beneš, Czechoslovak politician (d. 1948)

July–December

July 12 – Amedeo Modigliani, Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1920)

July 15 – Phraya Manopakorn Nititada, Thailand's first Prime Minister (d. 1948)

July 18 – Alberto di Jorio, former head of the Vatican Bank and secretary of the 1958 conclave (d. 1979)

July 23 – Emil Jannings, Swiss actor (d. 1950)

July 27 – Kathleen Howard, Canadian/American opera singer & character actress (d. 1956)

August 8 – Sara Teasdale, American poet (d. 1933)

August 10 – Robert G. Fowler, American pioneer aviator (d. 1966)

August 10 – Panait Istrati, Romanian writer (d. 1935)

August 15 – Mary Nash, American actress (d. 1976)

August 23 – Will Cuppy, American humorist (d. 1949)

August 27 – Harry Antrim, American actor (d. 1967)

August 30 – Theodor Svedberg, Swedish chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)

September 17 – Charles Tomlinson Griffes, American composer (d. 1920)

September 24

* İsmet İnönü, Turkish soldier, statesman and the second President of Turkey (d. 1973)

* September 24 – Hugo Schmeisser, German weapons designer (d. 1953)

September 30 – Bessie Barriscale, American actress (d. 1965)

October 7 – Major Harold Geiger, U.S. Army aviation pioneer (d. 1927)

October 11

* Friedrich Bergius, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1949)

* Eleanor Roosevelt, First Lady of the United States (d. 1962)

October 16 – Rembrandt Bugatti, Italian sculptor (d. 1916)

October 28 – William Douglas Cook, founder of Eastwoodhill Arboretum and Pukeiti (New Zealand) (d. 1967)

November 20 – Norman Thomas, American social reformer (d. 1968)

November 22 – Syed Sulaiman Nadvi, Indian/Pakistani historian, biographer, littérateur and scholar of Islam (d. 1953)

December 3

* Walther Stampfli, member of the Swiss Federal Council (d. 1965)

* Dr Rajendra Prasad, President of India (d. 1963)

December 25 – Evelyn Nesbit, model & actress, (d. 1967)

December 30 – Tojo Hideki, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1948)

Date unknown

M. Louise Gross, American politician and lobbyist (d. 1951)

Richard Spikes, African American inventor (d. 1962)

Deaths

January–June

January 6 – Gregor Mendel, Czech geneticist (b. 1822)

January 25 – Johann Gottfried Piefke, German conductor and composer (b. 1815)

February 14 – Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt, first wife of Theodore Roosevelt (b. 1861)

March 1 – Isaac Todhunter, English mathematician (b. 1820)

March 13 – Leland Stanford, Jr., in memory of whom Stanford University was founded (b. 1868).

March 19 – Elias Lönnrot, Finnish philologist and collector of traditional Finnish oral poetry (b. 1802).

March 21 – Ezra Abbot, American Bible scholar (b. 1819)

March 28 – Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, youngest son of Queen Victoria (b. 1853)

April 4 – Marie Bashkirtseff, Russian artist (b. 1858)

April 6 – Emanuel Geibel, poet and dramatist (b. 1815)

April 24 – Marie Taglioni, ballerina (b. 1804)

May 12 – Bedřich Smetana, Czech composer (b. 1824)

May 13 – Cyrus McCormick, American inventor (b. 1809)

June 19 – Juan Bautista Alberdi, Argentine politician, writer and main Constitution promoter (b. 1810)

June 21 – Alexander, Prince of Orange, Heir apparent to the Dutch throne (b. 1851)

June 25 – Hans Rott, Austrian composer (b. 1858)

July–December

July 1 – Allan Pinkerton, American detective (b. 1819)

July 10 – Paul Morphy, American chess player (b. 1837)

July 15 – Henry Wellesley, 1st Earl Cowley, diplomat (b. 1804)

October 4 – Leona Florentino, Filipina poet (b. 1849)

October 16 – Bernice Pauahi Bishop, Hawaiian ali‘i (b. 1831)

October 18 – William VIII, Duke of Brunswick (b. 1806)

November 16 – František Chvostek, Moravian physician (b. 1835)

November 25 – Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe, German chemist (b. 1818)

December 1 – William Swainson (lawyer), second, and last, Attorney-General (New Zealand) of the Crown Colony of New Zealand (b. 1809)

December 20 – Domenico Consolini, Roman Catholic Cardinal (b. 1806)

References

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Coordinates	41°52′55″N87°37′40″N
name	Terry Gilliam
birth date	November 22, 1940
birth place	Medicine Lake, Minnesota, United States
birth name	Terrence Vance Gilliam
years active	1967–present
spouse	Maggie Weston (1973–present)
occupation	Actor, animator, director, producer, screenwriter, comedian }}

Terrence Vance "Terry" Gilliam (; born 22 November 1940) is an American-born British screenwriter, film director, animator, actor and member of the Monty Python comedy troupe. Gilliam is also known for directing several films, including ''Time Bandits'' (1981), ''Brazil'' (1985), ''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen'' (1988), ''The Fisher King'' (1991), ''12 Monkeys'' (1995), ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'' (1998) and ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus'' (2009). The only "Python" not born in Britain, he took British citizenship in 1968.

Early life

Gilliam was born in Medicine Lake, Minnesota, the son of Beatrice (née Vance) and James Hall Gilliam, who was a traveling salesman for Folgers before becoming a carpenter.

The family moved to Panorama City, California, in 1952. Gilliam attended Birmingham High School where he was class president and senior prom King, was voted "Most Likely to Succeed", and achieved straight A's. During high school, he discovered ''Mad'' magazine, which was then edited by Harvey Kurtzman; this later influenced his work.

Gilliam later spoke to Salman Rushdie about defining experiences in the 1960s that would set the foundations for his views on the world, later influencing his art and career:

Career

Animations

Terry Gilliam started his career as an animator and strip cartoonist. One of his early photographic strips for ''Help!'' featured future Python cast-member John Cleese. When ''Help!'' folded, Gilliam went to Europe, jokingly announcing in the very last issue that he was "being transferred to the European branch" of the magazine, which of course did not exist. Moving to England, he animated sequences for the children's series ''Do Not Adjust Your Set'', which also featured Eric Idle, Terry Jones, and Michael Palin.

Monty Python

Gilliam was a part of ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' from its outset, at first credited as an animator (his name was listed separately after the other five in the closing credits), later as a full member. His cartoons were used as transitions linking the show's sketches together, and eventually came to define the group's visual language in other media (such as LP and book covers, and the title sequences of their films). Gilliam's surreal animations mix his own art, characterized by soft gradients and odd, bulbous shapes, with backgrounds and moving cutouts from antique photographs, mostly of British aristocracy from the Victorian era.

Besides doing the animations, he also appeared in several sketches, though he rarely had any main roles and did considerably less acting in the sketches. He did however have some notable sketch roles such as Cardinal Fang of the Spanish Inquisition, "I Want More Beans!" (from "Most Awful Family in Britain 1974", Episode 45) and the Screaming Queen in a cape and mask singing "Ding dong merrily on high."

More frequently, he played parts that no one else wanted to play (generally because they required a lot of make-up or uncomfortable costumes, such as a recurring knight in armour who would end sketches by walking on and hitting one of the other characters over the head with a plucked chicken) and took a number of small roles in the films, including Patsy in ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' (which he co-directed with Terry Jones, where Gilliam was responsible for photography, while Jones would guide the actors' performances) and the jailer in ''Monty Python's Life of Brian''.

Directing

With the gradual break-up of the Python troupe between ''Life of Brian'' in 1979 and ''The Meaning of Life'' in 1983, Gilliam became a screenwriter and director, building upon the experience he had acquired during the making of ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail''.

Gilliam says he used to think of his films in terms of trilogies, starting with ''Time Bandits'' in 1981. The 1980s saw Gilliam's self-written ''Trilogy of Imagination'' about "the ages of man" in ''Time Bandits'' (1981), ''Brazil'' (1985), and ''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen'' (1988). All are about the "craziness of our awkwardly ordered society and the desire to escape it through whatever means possible." All three movies focus on these struggles and attempts to escape them through imagination; ''Time Bandits'', through the eyes of a child, ''Brazil'', through the eyes of a thirty-something year old, and ''Munchausen'', through the eyes of an elderly man.

Throughout the 1990s, Gilliam directed his ''Trilogy of Americana'', ''The Fisher King'' (1991), ''12 Monkeys'' (1995), and ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'' (1998), which were based on scripts by other people, played on North American soil, and while still being surreal, had less fantastical plots than his previous trilogy.

Themes and philosophy

As for his philosophical background in screenwriting and directing, Gilliam said on the TV show ''First Hand'' on RoundhouseTV: "There's so many film schools, so many media courses which I actually am opposed to. Because I think it's more important to be educated, to read, to learn things, because if you're gonna be in the media and if you'll have to say things, you have to ''know'' things. If you only know about cameras and 'the media', what're you gonna be talking about except cameras and the media? So it's better learning about philosophy and art and architecture ''[and]'' literature, these are the things to be concentrating on it seems to me. Then, you can ''fly...!''"

His films are usually highly imaginative fantasies. His long-time co-writer Charles McKeown comments about Gilliam's recurring interests, "the theme of imagination, and the importance of imagination, to how you live and how you think and so on ''[...]'' that's very much a Terry theme." Most of Gilliam's movies include plot-lines that seem to occur partly or completely in the characters' imaginations, raising questions about the definition of identity and sanity. He often shows his opposition to bureaucracy and authoritarian regimes. He also distinguishes "higher" and "lower" layers of society, with a disturbing and ironic style. His movies usually feature a fight or struggle against a great power which may be an emotional situation, a human-made idol, or even the person himself, and the situations do not always end happily. There is often a dark, paranoid atmosphere and unusual characters who formerly were normal members of society. His scripts feature black comedy and often end with a dark tragicomic twist.

As Gilliam is fascinated with the Baroque due to the historical age's pronounced struggle between spirituality and logical rationality, there is often a rich baroqueness and dichotomous eclecticity about his movies, with, for instance, high-tech computer monitors equipped with low-tech magnifying lenses in ''Brazil'', and in ''The Fisher King'' a red knight covered with flapping bits of cloth. He also is given to incongruous juxtapositions of beauty and ugliness, or antique and modern. Regarding Gilliam's theme of modernity's struggle between spirituality and rationality whereas the individual may become dominated by a tyrannical, soulless machinery of disenchanted society, film critic James Keith Hamel observed a specific affinity of Gilliam's movies with the writings of economic historian Arnold Toynbee and sociologist Max Weber, specifically the latter's concept of the ''Iron cage'' of modern rationality.

Look and style

Gilliam's films have a distinctive look not only in ''mise-en-scene'' but even more so in photography, often recognizable from just a short clip; in order to create a surreal atmosphere of psychological unrest and a world out-of-balance, Gilliam makes frequent use of unusual camera angles, particularly low-angle shots, high-angle shots, and Dutch angles. Roger Ebert has said "his world is always hallucinatory in its richness of detail." Most of his movies are shot almost entirely with rectilinear ultra wide angle lenses of 28 mm focal length or less in order to achieve a distinctive signature style defined by extreme perspective distortion and extremely deep focus. Gilliam's long-time director of photography Nicola Pecorini has said, "with Terry and me, a long lens means something between a 40mm and a 65mm." This attitude markedly differs from the common definition in photography which qualifies 40mm to 65mm as the focal length of a normal lens instead due to resembling natural human field of view, unlike Gilliam's signature style defined by extreme perspective distortion due to his usual choice of focal length. In fact, over the years, the 14mm lens has become informally known as "The Gilliam" among film-makers due to the director's frequent use of it since at least ''Brazil''.

In another interview, Gilliam also mentioned, in relation to the 9.8mm Kinoptic lens he had first used on ''Brazil'', that wide-angle lenses make small film sets "look big". The widest lens he has used so far is an 8mm Zeiss lens employed on ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus''.

Production problems

thumb|left|Terry Gilliam at IFC Center. 4 October 2006.Gilliam has made a few extremely expensive movies beset with production problems. After the lengthy quarreling with Universal Studios over ''Brazil'', Gilliam's next picture, ''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen'', cost around US$46 million, and then earned only about US$8 million in US ticket sales. The film saw no wide domestic release from Columbia Pictures, which was in the process of being sold at the time.

In the mid-1990s, Gilliam and Charles McKeown developed a script for ''Time Bandits 2'', a project that never came to be. Several of the original actors had died. Gilliam also attempted to direct a version of Charles Dickens's ''A Tale of Two Cities'', which collapsed due to disagreements over its budget and choice of lead actor.

In 1999, Gilliam attempted to film ''The Man Who Killed Don Quixote'', budgeted at US$32.1 million, among the highest-budgeted films to use only European financing; but in the first week of shooting, the actor playing Don Quixote (Jean Rochefort) suffered a herniated disc, and a flood severely damaged the set. The film was cancelled, resulting in an insurance claim of US$15 million. Despite the cancellation, the aborted project did yield the documentary ''Lost in La Mancha'', produced from film from a second crew that had been hired by Gilliam to document the making of ''Quixote''. After the cancellation, both Gilliam and the film's co-lead, Johnny Depp, wanted to revive the project. The insurance company involved in the failed first attempt withheld the rights to the screenplay for several years but the production was finally restarted in 2008.

Gilliam has attempted twice to adapt Alan Moore's ''Watchmen'' comics into a film. Both attempts (in 1989 and 1996) were unsuccessful. Most recently, unforeseeable problems again befell a Gilliam project when actor Heath Ledger died in New York City during the filming of ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus''.

On the other hand, Gilliam's first successful feature, ''Time Bandits'' (1981), earned more than eight times its original budget in the United States alone; ''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen'' (1988) was nominated for four Academy Awards (and won, among other European prizes, three BAFTA Awards); ''The Fisher King'' (1991) (his first film not to feature a member from Python) was nominated for five (and won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress); and ''12 Monkeys'' went on to take over US$168 million worldwide; whilst ''The Brothers Grimm'', despite a mixed critical reception, grossed over US$105 million worldwide. According to Box Office Mojo, his films have grossed an average of $26,009,723.

Recurring collaborators

Ever since his first Python-independent feature ''Jabberwocky'', Gilliam has shown a propensity to work with particular actors in numerous productions. Up until the 1990s, each of Gilliam's non-Python films was to feature at least one of his fellow Monty Python alumni (particularly Palin, Cleese, and Idle), and for his finished projects Gilliam has worked with the following actors more than once (in order of first film appearance):

Derrick O'Connor (''Jabberwocky'', ''Time Bandits'', ''Brazil'')

Ian Holm (''Time Bandits'', ''Brazil'')

Peter Vaughan (''Time Bandits'', ''Brazil'')

Jack Purvis (''Time Bandits'', ''Brazil'', ''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen'')

Jim Broadbent (''Time Bandits'', ''Brazil'')

Charles McKeown (''Time Bandits'', ''Brazil'', ''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen'', ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus'')

Katherine Helmond (''Time Bandits'', ''Brazil'', ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'')

Jonathan Pryce (''Brazil'', ''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen'', ''The Brothers Grimm'')

Simon Jones (''Brazil'', ''12 Monkeys'')

Robin Williams (''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen'', ''The Fisher King''; also was to play Cavaldi in ''The Brothers Grimm'' until objections by producers Bob and Harvey Weinstein)

Jeff Bridges (''The Fisher King'', ''Tideland'')

Michael Jeter (''The Fisher King'', ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'')

Tom Waits (''The Fisher King'', ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus'')

Christopher Plummer (''12 Monkeys'', ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus'')

Christopher Meloni (''12 Monkeys'', ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'')

Johnny Depp (''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'', ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus''; held the title role in Gilliam's first attempt at directing ''The Man Who Killed Don Quixote'' in 2000)

Verne Troyer (''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'', ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus'')

Heath Ledger (''The Brothers Grimm'', ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus'')

Peter Stormare (''The Brothers Grimm'', ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus'')

Other recurring collaborators include Gilliam's cinematographers Roger Pratt (''Brazil'', ''The Fisher King'', ''12 Monkeys'') and Nicola Pecorini (''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'', ''The Brothers Grimm'', ''Tideland'', ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus''), and his co-writer McKeown (''Brazil'', ''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen'', ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus'').

Gilliam and ''Harry Potter''

J. K. Rowling, author of the ''Harry Potter'' series, is a fan of Gilliam's work. Consequently, he was Rowling's first choice to direct ''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'' in 2000, but Warner Bros. ultimately chose Chris Columbus for the job. In response to this decision, Gilliam expressed that "I was the perfect guy to do ''Harry Potter''. I remember leaving the meeting, getting in my car, and driving for about two hours along Mulholland Drive just so angry. I mean, Chris Columbus' versions are terrible. Just dull. Pedestrian." Gilliam has since stated that he wouldn't have liked to direct any ''Potter'' film. In a 2005 interview with Total Film Magazine, he said that he would not enjoy working on such an expensive project due to interference from studio executives.

In ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Part 1'', director David Yates paid homage to Gilliam's 1985 film ''Brazil''.

Secret Tournament

In 2002, Gilliam directed a series of television advertisements called ''Secret Tournament''. The advertisements were part of Nike's Football World Cup campaign, and featured a secret three-on-three tournament between the world's best football players inside a huge tanker ship, with the Elvis Presley song "A Little Less Conversation" playing during the advertisements.

Slava's Diabolo

In 1996, Gilliam directed the stage show ''Slava's Diabolo'' created and staged by Russian clown artist Slava Polunin. The show combines Polunin's clown style, characterized by deep non-verbal expression and interaction with the audience, with Gilliam's rich visuals and surrealistic imagery. The show premiered at the Noga hall of the Gesher theater in Jaffa, Israel.

''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus''

''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus'', directed and co-written by Gilliam, was released in 2009. In January 2007, Gilliam announced that he had been working on a new project with writing partner Charles McKeown. One day later, the fansite Dreams reported that the new project was titled ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus''. In October 2007, Dreams confirmed that this would be Gilliam's next project and was slated to star Christopher Plummer and Tom Waits. Production began in December 2007 in London.

On 22 January 2008, production of the film was disrupted following the death of Heath Ledger in New York City. ''Variety'' reports that Ledger's involvement had been a "key factor" in the film's financing. Production was suspended indefinitely by 24 January, but in February actors Johnny Depp, Jude Law, and Colin Farrell reportedly signed on to continue Ledger's role, transforming into multiple incarnations of his character in the "magical" world of the film. Thanks to this arrangement principal photography was completed 15 April 2008 on schedule. Editing was completed November 2008. According to the official ''ParnassusFilm'' Twitter channel launched on 30 March 2009, the film's post-production FX work finished on 31 March.

During the filming, Gilliam was accidentally hit by a bus and broke his back.

The UK release for the film was scheduled for 6 June 2009 but was pushed back to 16 October 2009. The USA release was on 25 December 2009. The film has had successful screenings including a premiere at the 62nd Cannes Film Festival. The director stated his intent to dedicate the film to Ledger. Depp, Farrell, and Law donated their proceeds from the film to Ledger's daughter.

The Damnation of Faust

Gilliam made his opera debut at London's English National Opera in May 2011, directing ''The Damnation of Faust'' by Hector Berlioz. The production received positive reviews in the British press

Projects in development or shelved

Gilliam has several projects in various states of development, including an adaptation of Neil Gaiman and Terry Pratchett's comic fantasy novel ''Good Omens''. Other projects Gilliam has been trying to get off the ground since the 1990s are an adaptation of Charles Dickens' ''A Tale of Two Cities'' (starring Mel Gibson), an adaptation of ''A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court'' by Mark Twain (which has been adapted into movies several times before), and a script titled ''The Defective Detective'' that Gilliam has co-authored with Richard LaGravenese (who wrote Gilliam's ''The Fisher King'' before).

It was rumoured that Gilliam may direct – or be involved in the production of – the animated band Gorillaz' movie. In a September 2006 interview with ''Uncut'' magazine, Damon Albarn was reported saying "... we're making a film. We've got Terry Gilliam involved." However, in a more recent interview with Gorillaz-Unofficial, Jamie Hewlett, the co-creator of the band, stated that since the time of the previous interview, Damon's and his own fixation on the film had lessened. In an August 2008 ''Observer'' interview, Gorillaz band members Albarn and Hewlett revealed the nature and title of the project, ''Journey to the West'', a movie adaptation of the opera of the same name based on a 16th-century Chinese adventure story also known as ''Monkey''. In January 2008, while on set of ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus'', Gilliam stated that he was looking forward to the project, "But I'm still waiting to see a script!" Participating were producer Richard D. Zanuck and screenwriter Pat Rushin. When little was revealed about the nature of the film writer Pat Rushin suggested that his short story "Vow: A Prolix Parable" was an example of the screenplay's sensibility. An article at film website ''Tout Le Cine'' stated the film was to be about a reclusive and tortured data processing genius working on a mysterious project. Production was said to start May 2009. However, in June 2009 Gilliam stated that he had dropped the film having to invest more time than expected in the promotion of the 2009 film ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus'' as well as in preparation for his film of ''Don Quixote''.

Future projects

After regaining the rights to the screenplay of ''The Man Who Killed Don Quixote'', Gilliam restarted pre-production in 2008, with Johnny Depp still attached to the project. The film will be reshot completely, and Rochefort's role will be recast. Michael Palin reportedly entered talks with Gilliam to step in for Rochefort and play Don Quixote. However, Gilliam revealed on Canadian talk show ''The Hour'' on 17 December 2009, that Robert Duvall had been cast to play Quixote.

On 16 December 2010, ''Variety'' reported that Gilliam is to "godfather" a film called ''1884'' which is described as an animated steampunk parody of George Orwell's ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'', with several former Pythons lending their voice talents to the project whereas Gilliam will be credited as "creative adviser".

Personal life

Gilliam has been married to the British make-up and costume designer Maggie Weston since 1973. She worked on ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'', many of the Python movies, and Gilliam's movies up to ''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen''. They have three children, Amy (b. 1978), Holly (b. 1980), and Harry (b. 1988), who have also appeared in several of Gilliam's films.

In 1968, Gilliam obtained British citizenship, then held dual American and British citizenship for the next 38 years. In January 2006 he renounced his American citizenship. In an interview with ''Der Tagesspiegel'', he described the action as a protest against then President George W. Bush, and in an earlier interview with The Onion AV Club, he also indicated that it was related to concerns about future tax liability for his wife and children. As a result of renouncing his citizenship, Gilliam is only permitted to spend 30 days per year in the United States, fewer than ordinary British citizens. Gilliam also maintains a residence in Italy near the Umbria-Tuscany border. He has been instrumental in establishing the annual Umbria Film Festival, held in the nearby hill town of Montone.

Filmography

Feature

''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' (1975) (co-directed with Terry Jones)

''Jabberwocky'' (1977)

''Time Bandits'' (1981)

''Brazil'' (1985)

''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen'' (1988)

''The Fisher King'' (1991)

''12 Monkeys'' (1995)

''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'' (1998)

''The Brothers Grimm'' (2005)

''Tideland'' (2005)

''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus'' (2009)

Upcoming films:

''The Man Who Killed Don Quixote'' (in pre-production)

Shorts

''Storytime'' (1968) (animated short)

''The Miracle of Flight'' (1974) (animated short)

''The Crimson Permanent Assurance'' (1983) (a short supporting feature that accompanied ''Monty Python's The Meaning of Life'')

''The Legend of Hallowdega'' (2010)

''The Wholly Family'' (2011)

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''Secret Tournament'' (2002)

''The Rematch'' (2002)

Awards, nominations and honours

''Brazil'' (1985)

*Los Angeles Film Critics Association Best film, director, and screenplay

*1 Academy Awards nominations Best Original Screenplay

''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen'' (1988)

*3 BAFTA Awards Best Costume Design, Best Make Up Artist, Best Production Design

*3 Silver Ribbons awarded by the Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists Best Cinematography, Best Costume Design, Best Production Design

*4 Academy Awards nominations Best Set Decoration, Best Costume Design, Best Visual Effects, Best Makeup

*4 Saturn Awards nominations Best Costumes, Best Fantasy Film, Best Make-Up, Best Special Effects

*Hugo Award nomination for Best Dramatic Presentation

''The Fisher King'' (1991)

*Academy Award Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Mercedes Ruehl)

*4 Academy Awards nominations Best Actor in a Leading Role (Robin Williams), Best Art Direction-Set Decoration, Best Music, Original Score, Best Writing, Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen

*Venice Film Festival Silver Lion Winner

*Toronto Film Festival People's Choice Award Winner

''Twelve Monkeys'' (1995)

*2 Academy Awards nominations Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Brad Pitt), Best Costume Design

*Berlin Film Festival Reader Jury of the "Berliner Morgenpost" – 3rd Place

''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'' (1998)

Cannes Film Festival Official Selection

''The Brothers Grimm'' (2005)

*Venice Film Festival Official Selection

''Tideland'' (2005)

San Sebastian Festival Winner of the FIPRESCI Prize

''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus'' (2009)

*2 Academy Awards nominations Best Costume Design, Best Art Direction

*2 BAFTA Awards nominations Best Production Design, Best Make Up & Hair

*Best Fantasy Film nomination by the Costume Designers Guild of America

*British Independent Film Awards nomination for Best Achievement in Production

*International Press Academy Satellite Award Best Costume Design, 3 more nominations for Best Visual Effects, Best Art Direction & Production Design, Best Original Song

*Voted Best Fantasy Film of the Year by readers of the Total Sci-Fi Online magazine.

An asteroid, 9619 Terrygilliam, is named in his honor.

Gilliam was given the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award in 2009 for his contribution to motion picture arts. Terry Gilliam awarded the Fellowship of the Kermodes, by film critic Mark Kermode. Gilliam was honored with the ''Director with Unique Visual Sensitivity Award'' at the Camerimage film festival in Łódź, Poland in 2009.

Further reading

References

External links

Dreams – exclusive interviews with Gilliam and coverage of his films

Senses of Cinema: Terry Gilliam

The Terry Gilliam Files – Interviews and behind-the-scenes production stories

Extensive Terry Gilliam Filmography and Biography

Terry Gilliam's Cinématon. A 4 minutes portrait by Gérard Courant

Terry Gilliam: BAFTA A Life in pictures

Terry Gilliam Interviewed by Jonathan Derbyshire “The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus" on New Statesman

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Coordinates	41°52′55″N87°37′40″N
Name	Gaius Julius Caesar
Title	Dictator of the Roman Republic
Full name	Gaius Julius Caesar
Reign	October 49 BC –15 March 44 BC (as dictator and/or consul)
Consort	Cornelia Cinna minor 84 – 68 BC Pompeia 68 – 63 BC Calpurnia Pisonis 59 – 44 BC
Issue	Julia Caesaris 85/84 – 54 BCCaesarion 47 – 30 BCAugustus 63 BC – 14 AD (grand-nephew, posthumously adopted as Caesar's son in 44 BC)
Royal house	Julio-Claudian
Father	Gaius Julius Cæsar
Mother	Aurelia Cotta
Birth date	13 July 100 BC
Birth place	Subura, Rome
Death date	15 March 44 BC (aged 55)
Death place	Curia of Pompey, Rome
Place of burial	}}

Gaius Julius Caesar (13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.

In 60 BC, Caesar entered into a political alliance with Crassus and Pompey that was to dominate Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to amass power through populist tactics were opposed within the Roman Senate by the conservative elite, among them Cato the Younger with the frequent support of Cicero. Caesar's conquest of Gaul, completed by 51 BC, extended Rome's territory to the English Channel and the Rhine. Caesar became the first Roman general to cross both when he built a bridge across the Rhine and conducted the first invasion of Britain. These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse Pompey's standing. The balance of power was further upset by the death of Crassus in 53 BC. Political realignments in Rome finally led to a standoff between Caesar and Pompey, the latter having taken up the cause of the Senate. Ordered by the senate to stand trial in Rome for various charges, Caesar marched from Gaul to Italy with his legions, crossing the Rubicon in 49 BC. This sparked a civil war from which he emerged as the unrivaled leader of the Roman world.

After assuming control of government, he began extensive reforms of Roman society and government. He centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed "dictator in perpetuity". A group of senators, led by Marcus Junius Brutus, assassinated the dictator on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC, hoping to restore the constitutional government of the Republic. However, the result was a series of civil wars, which ultimately led to the establishment of the permanent Roman Empire by Caesar's adopted heir Octavius (later known as Augustus). Much of Caesar's life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns, and other contemporary sources, mainly the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust. The later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also major sources.

Early life and career

Caesar was born into a patrician family, the ''gens Julia'', which claimed descent from Iulus, son of the legendary Trojan prince Aeneas, supposedly the son of the goddess Venus. The ''cognomen'' "Caesar" originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by caesarean section (from the Latin verb to cut, ''caedere'', ''caes-''). The ''Historia Augusta'' suggests three alternative explanations: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin ''caesaries''); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin ''oculis caesiis''); or that he killed an elephant (''caesai'' in Moorish) in battle. Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favoured this interpretation of his name. Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential. Caesar's father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar, governed the province of Asia, while his mother, Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family. Little is recorded of Caesar's childhood. Caesar's formative years were a time of turmoil. There were several wars from 91 BC to 82 BC, although from 82 BC to 80 BC, the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla was purging Rome of his political enemies. Domestically, Roman politics was bitterly divided. In 85 BC Caesar's father died suddenly so at sixteen Caesar was the head of the family. The following year he was nominated to be the new high priest of Jupiter. Since the holder of that position not only had to be a patrician but also be married to a patrician, he broke off his engagement to a plebeian girl he had been betrothed to since boyhood, and married Lucius Cinna's daughter Cornelia. Then, having brought Mithridates to terms, Sulla returned to Rome and had himself appointed to the revived office of dictator. Sulla's proscriptions saw hundreds of his political enemies killed or exiled. Caesar, as the nephew of Marius and son-in-law of Cinna, was targeted. He was stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry and his priesthood, but he refused to divorce Cornelia and was forced to go into hiding. The threat against him was lifted by the intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of Sulla, and the Vestal Virgins. Sulla gave in reluctantly, and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar.

Caesar left Rome and joined the army, where he won the Civic Crown for his part in an important siege. On a mission to Bithynia to secure the assistance of King Nicomedes's fleet, he spent so long at his court that rumours of an affair with the king arose, which Caesar would vehemently deny for the rest of his life. Ironically, the loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career: the high priest of Jupiter was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army. Hearing of Sulla's death in 78 BC, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome. Lacking means since his inheritance was confiscated, he acquired a modest house in a lower-class neighbourhood of Rome. Instead, he turned to legal advocacy. He became known for his exceptional oratory, accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for extortion and corruption.

On the way across the Aegean Sea, Caesar was kidnapped by pirates and held prisoner. He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. When the pirates thought to demand a ransom of twenty talents of silver, he insisted they ask for fifty. After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them. He had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised while in captivity—a promise the pirates had taken as a joke. As a sign of leniency, he first had their throats cut. He was soon called back into military action in Asia, raising a band of auxiliaries to repel an incursion from the east.

On his return to Rome, he was elected military tribune, a first step in a political career. He was elected quaestor for 69 BC, and during that year he delivered the funeral oration for his aunt Julia. His wife, Cornelia, also died that year. After her funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC, Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Spain. While there he is said to have encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realized with dissatisfaction he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. On his return in 67 BC, he married Pompeia, a granddaughter of Sulla, and whom he later divorced. In 63 BC, he ran for election to the post of Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the Roman state religion. He ran against two powerful senators. There were accusations of bribery by all sides. Caesar won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing. When Cicero, who was consul that year, exposed Catiline's conspiracy to seize control of the republic, several senators accused Caesar of involvement in the plot.

After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern Spain, but he was still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. He turned to Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of Rome's richest men. In return for political support in his opposition to the interests of Pompey, Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others. Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and open to prosecution for his debts, Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended. In Spain, he conquered two local tribes and was hailed as ''imperator'' by his troops, reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem. As ''imperator'', Caesar was entitled to a triumph. However, he also wanted to stand for consul, the most senior magistracy in the republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his command and enter Rome as a private citizen. He could not do both in the time available. He asked the senate for permission to stand ''in absentia'', but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship.

Consulship and military campaigns

In 60 BC, Caesar sought election as consul for 59 BC. Two other candidates stood for the consulship, and the election was dirty. Even Cato, with his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in favor of one of Caesar's opponents. Caesar won, along with conservative Marcus Bibulus. Caesar was already in Crassus' political debt, but he also made overtures to Pompey. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds for a decade, so Caesar tried to reconcile them. Between the three of them, they had enough money and political influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the First Triumvirate (rule of three men), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter Julia. Caesar also married again, this time Calpurnia, who was the daughter of another powerful senator.

Caesar proposed a law for the redistribution of public lands to the poor, a proposal supported by Pompey, by force of arms if need be, and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with soldiers, and the triumvirate's opponents were intimidated. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavorable and thus void the new law, but was driven from the forum by Caesar's armed supporters. His bodyguards had their ceremonial axes broken, two high magistrates accompanying him were wounded, and Bibulus had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts to obstruct Caesar's legislation proved ineffective. Roman satirists ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar".

When Caesar was first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit his future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than the governorship of a province, as his military command duty after his year in office was over. With the help of political allies, Caesar later had this overturned, and was instead appointed to govern Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy) and Illyricum (southeastern Europe), with Transalpine Gaul (southern France) later added, giving him command of four legions. The term of his governorship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one. When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province.

Conquest of Gaul

Caesar was still deeply in debt, and there was money to be made as a governor, whether by extortion or by military adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces bordered on unconquered territory, and parts of Gaul were known to be unstable. Some of Rome's Gallic allies had been defeated by their rivals, with the help of a contingent of Germanic tribes. The Romans feared these tribes were preparing to migrate south, closer to Italy, and that they had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated these tribes.

In response to Caesar's earlier activities, the tribes in the north-east began to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an aggressive move, and, after an inconclusive engagement against the united tribes, he conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one of his legions began the conquest of the tribes in the far north (directly opposite Britain). During the spring of 56 BC, the Triumvirate held a conference, as Rome was in turmoil and Caesar's political alliance was coming undone. The meeting renewed the Triumvirate and extended Caesar's governorship for another five years. The conquest of the north was soon completed, while a few pockets of resistance remained. Caesar now had a secure base from which to launch an invasion of Britain. In 55 BC Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by two Germanic tribes, and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued two other tribes, he crossed into Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided one of his enemies the previous year. His intelligence information was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the coast, he could not advance further, and returned to Gaul for the winter. He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, and established a few alliances. However, poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, which forced Caesar to leave Britain for the last time.

While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar tried to re-secure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece in marriage, but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed invasion of the east. Rome was on the edge of civil war. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married the daughter of a political opponent of Caesar. The Triumvirate was dead.

In 52 BC another, larger revolt erupted in Gaul, led by Vercingetorix. Vercingetorix managed to unite the Gallic tribes and proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar in several engagements, but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the Battle of Alesia finally forced his surrender. Despite scattered outbreaks of warfare the following year, Gaul was effectively conquered. Plutarch claimed that the army had fought against three million men during the Gallic Wars, of whom 1 million died, and another million were enslaved. The Romans subjugated 300 tribes and destroyed 800 cities. However, in view of the difficulty in finding accurate counts in the first place, Caesar's propagandistic purposes, and the common exaggeration of numbers in ancient texts, the stated totals of enemy combatants are likely to be too high.

Civil war

In 50 BC, the Senate, led by Pompey, ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as governor had finished. Caesar thought he would be prosecuted if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a magistrate. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason. In January 49 BC, Caesar crossed the Rubicon river (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only one legion and ignited civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwright Menander, in Greek, "the die is cast". Erasmus, however, notes that the more accurate translation of the Greek imperative mood would be "alea icta esto" ''let'' the die be cast. Pompey and much of the senate fled to the south, having little confidence in his newly raised troops. Despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who only had his Thirteenth Legion with him, Pompey did not intend to fight. Caesar pursued Pompey, hoping to capture him before his legions could escape. Pompey managed to escape before Caesar could capture him. Caesar decided to head for Spain, while leaving Italy under the control of Mark Antony. Caesar made an astonishing 27-day route-march to Spain, where he defeated Pompey's lieutenants. He then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Greece where in July 48 BC at Dyrrhachium Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat. He decisively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus in an exceedingly short engagement later that year.

In Rome, Caesar was appointed dictator, with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse (second in command); Caesar presided over his own election to a second consulship and then, after eleven days, resigned this dictatorship. Caesar then pursued Pompey to Egypt, where Pompey was soon murdered. Caesar then became involved with an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, Cleopatra. Perhaps as a result of the pharaoh's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which was offered to him by the pharaoh as a gift. In any event, Caesar defeated the pharaoh's forces in 47 BC and installed Cleopatra as ruler. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory with a triumphant procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 BC. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, introducing Caesar to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs. Caesar and Cleopatra never married, as Roman law recognized marriages only between two Roman citizens. Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, which lasted 14 years – in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery – and may have fathered a son called Caesarion. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber.

Late in 48 BC, Caesar was again appointed Dictator, with a term of one year. After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East, where he annihilated the king of Pontus; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies. Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He quickly gained a significant victory in 46 BC over Cato, who then committed suicide. After this victory, he was appointed Dictator for ten years. Nevertheless, Pompey's sons escaped to Spain. Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Battle of Munda in March 45 BC. During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC and 45 BC (this last time without a colleague).

Dictatorship and assassination

While he was still campaigning in Spain, the Senate began bestowing honors on Caesar. Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition to him. Great games and celebrations were held in April to honor Caesar’s victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following Caesar's victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners, but instead fellow Romans. On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will, naming his grandnephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian) as the heir to everything, including his name. Caesar also wrote that if Octavian died before Caesar did, Marcus Junius Brutus would be the next heir in succession.

During his early career, Caesar had seen how chaotic and dysfunctional the Roman Republic had become. The republican machinery had broken down under the weight of imperialism, the central government had become powerless, the provinces had been transformed into independent principalities under the absolute control of their governors, and the army had replaced the constitution as the means of accomplishing political goals. With a weak central government, political corruption had spiraled out of control, and the status quo had been maintained by a corrupt aristocracy, which saw no need to change a system that had made its members rich.

Between his crossing of the Rubicon River in 49 BC, and his assassination in 44 BC, Caesar established a new constitution, which was intended to accomplish three separate goals. First, he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces, and thus bring order back to the empire. Second, he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome. Finally, he wanted to knit together the entire empire into a single cohesive unit. and so he assumed these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions. Finally, he enacted a series of reforms that were meant to address several long neglected issues, the most important of which was his reform of the calendar.

Dictatorship

When Caesar returned to Rome, the Senate granted him triumphs for his victories, ostensibly over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces and Juba, rather than over his Roman opponents. Not everything went Caesar's way. When Arsinoe IV, Egypt's former queen, was paraded in chains, the spectators admired her dignified bearing and were moved to pity. Triumphal games were held, with beast-hunts involving 400 lions, and gladiator contests. A naval battle was held on a flooded basin at the Field of Mars. At the Circus Maximus, two armies of war captives, each of 2,000 people, 200 horse and 20 elephants, fought to the death. Again, some bystanders complained, this time at Caesar's wasteful extravagance. A riot broke out, and only stopped when Caesar had two rioters sacrificed by the priests on the Field of Mars.

When the triumph was over, Caesar set forth to passing an unprecedented legislative agenda. He ordered a census be taken, which forced a reduction in the grain dole. Then he mandated that jurors could only come from the senate or the equestrian ranks. Next, he passed a sumptuary law that restricted the purchase of certain luxuries. After this, he passed a law that rewarded families for having many children, to speed along the repopulation of Italy. Then he passed a law that outlawed professional guilds, except those of ancient foundation, since many of these were subversive political clubs. He then passed a term limit law applicable to governors. He passed a debt restructuring law, which ultimately eliminated about a fourth of all debts owed. The Forum of Caesar, with its Temple of Venus Genetrix, was then built among many other public works. Caesar also tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidised grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fixed number, all of whom were entered into a special register. From 47 to 44 BC he made plans for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans. The most important change, however, was his reform of the calendar. The calendar at the time was regulated by the movement of the moon, and this had resulted in a great deal of disorder. Caesar replaced this calendar with the Egyptian calendar, which was regulated by the sun. He set the length of the year to 365.25 days by adding an intercalary/leap day at the end of February every fourth year. To bring the calendar into alignment with the seasons, he decreed that three extra months be inserted into 46 BC (the ordinary intercalary month at the end of February, and two extra months after November). Thus, the Julian calendar opened on 1 January 45 BC. This calendar is almost identical to the current Western calendar.

Shortly before his assassination, he passed a few more reforms. He established a police force, appointed officials to carry out his land reforms, and ordered the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth. He also extended Latin rights throughout the Roman world, and then abolished the tax system and reverted to the earlier version that allowed cities to collect tribute however they wanted, rather than needing Roman intermediaries. His assassination prevented further and larger schemes. He wanted to build an unprecedented temple to Mars, a huge theater, and a library on the scale of the Library of Alexandria. He also wanted to convert Ostia to a major port, and cut a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth. Militarily, he wanted to conquer the Dacians, Parthians, and avenge the loss at Carrhae. Thus, he instituted a massive mobilization. Shortly before his assassination, the senate named him censor for life and Father of the Fatherland, and the month of Quintilis was renamed July in his honor. He was granted further honors, which were later used to justify his assassination as a would-be divine monarch; coins were issued bearing his image and his statue was placed next to those of the kings. He was granted a golden chair in the senate house, allowed to wear triumphal dress whenever he chose, and was offered a form of semi-official or popular cult, with Mark Antony as his high priest.

Political reforms

The history of Caesar's political appointments is complex and uncertain. Caesar held both the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternated between the consulship and the Proconsulship. mostly because Caesar was frequently out of Italy. In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers, which made his person sacrosanct and allowed him to veto the senate, To minimize the risk that another general might attempt to challenge him,

According to Plutarch, as Caesar arrived at the Senate, Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother. The other conspirators crowded round to offer support. Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar waved him away, but Cimber grabbed his shoulders and pulled down Caesar's tunic. Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("''Ista quidem vis est!''"). At the same time, Casca produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?" Casca, frightened, shouted, "Help, brother!" in Greek ("", "''adelphe, boethei!''"). Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico. According to Eutropius, around 60 or more men participated in the assassination. He was stabbed 23 times. According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal. The dictator's last words are not known with certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike. Suetonius reports that others have said Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase "" (transliterated as "''Kai su, teknon?''": "You too, child?" in English). However, Suetonius says Caesar said nothing. Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators. The version best known in the English-speaking world is the Latin phrase "''Et tu, Brute?''" ("And you, Brutus?", commonly rendered as "You too, Brutus?"); this derives from Shakespeare's ''Julius Caesar'', where it actually forms the first half of a macaronic line: "''Et tu, Brute?'' Then fall, Caesar." It has no basis in historical fact and Shakespeare's use of Latin here is not from any assertion that Caesar would have been using the language, rather than the Greek reported by Suetonius, but because the phrase was already popular when the play was written. According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators; they, however, fled the building. Brutus and his companions then marched to the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city: "People of Rome, we are once again free!" They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumour of what had taken place had begun to spread. Caesar's dead body lay where it fell on the Senate floor for nearly three hours before other officials arrived to remove it.

A lifesize wax statue of Caesar was later erected in the forum displaying the 23 stab wounds. A crowd who had gathered there started a fire, which badly damaged the forum and neighbouring buildings. In the ensuing chaos Mark Antony, Octavian (later Augustus Caesar), and others fought a series of five civil wars, which would end in the formation of the Roman Empire.

Aftermath of the assassination

The result unforeseen by the assassins was that Caesar's death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic. The Roman middle and lower classes, with whom Caesar was immensely popular and had been since before Gaul, became enraged that a small group of aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony, who had been drifting apart from Caesar, capitalised on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the Optimates, perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself. However, to his surprise and chagrin, Caesar had named his grandnephew Gaius Octavian his sole heir, bequeathing him the immensely potent Caesar name and making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic. The crowd at the funeral boiled over, throwing dry branches, furniture and even clothing on to Caesar's funeral pyre, causing the flames to spin out of control, seriously damaging the Forum. The mob then attacked the houses of Brutus and Cassius, where they were repelled only with considerable difficulty, ultimately providing the spark for the Liberators' civil war, fulfilling at least in part Antony's threat against the aristocrats. However, Antony did not foresee the ultimate outcome of the next series of civil wars, particularly with regard to Caesar's adopted heir. Octavian, aged only 18 when Caesar died, proved to have considerable political skills, and while Antony dealt with Decimus Brutus in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position. To combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the cash from Caesar's war chests, and the legitimacy that Caesar's name would provide for any action he took against them. With the passage of the ''lex Titia'' on 27 November 43 BC, the Second Triumvirate was officially formed, composed of Antony, Octavian, and Caesar's loyal cavalry commander Lepidus. It formally deified Caesar as Divus Iulius in 42 BC, and Caesar Octavian henceforth became ''Divi filius'' ("Son of a god"). Because Caesar's clemency had resulted in his murder, the Second Triumvirate brought back the practice of proscription, abandoned since Sulla. It engaged in the legally sanctioned murder of a large number of its opponents to secure funding for its forty-five legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius. Antony and Octavius defeated them at Philippi. Afterward, Mark Antony married Caesar's lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome. A third civil war broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other. This final civil war, culminating in the latter's defeat at Actium, resulted in the permanent ascendancy of Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor, under the name Caesar Augustus, a name that raised him to the status of a deity.

Julius Caesar had been preparing to invade Parthia, the Caucasus and Scythia, and then march back to Germania through Eastern Europe. These plans were thwarted by his assassination. His successors did attempt the conquests of Parthia and Germania, but without lasting results.

Julius Caesar was the first historical Roman to be officially deified. He was posthumously granted the title ''Divus Iulius'' or ''Divus Julius'' (the divine Julius or the deified Julius) by decree of the Roman Senate on 1 January 42 BC. Though his temple was not dedicated until after his death, he may have received divine honours during his lifetime: and shortly before his assassination, Mark Antony had been appointed as his ''flamen'' (priest). Both Octavian and Mark Antony promoted the cult of Divus Iulius. After the death of Antony, Octavian, as the adoptive son of Caesar, assumed the title of ''Divi Filius'' (son of a god).

Personal life

Health and physical appearance

Based on remarks by Plutarch, Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy. Modern scholarship is "sharply divided" on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s. Despite the commonly held belief that Caesar suffered from epilepsy, several specialists in headache medicine believe that a more accurate diagnosis would be migraine headache.

Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have had absence seizures in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures.

In 2003, psychiatrist Harbour F. Hodder published what he termed as the "Caesar Complex" theory, arguing that Caesar was a sufferer of temporal lobe epilepsy and the debilitating symptoms of the condition were a factor in Caesar's conscious decision to forgo personal safety in the days leading up to his assassination.

A line from Shakespeare has sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: ''Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf''. No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defense.

The Roman historian Suetonius describes Caesar as "tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes."

Name and family

Using the Latin alphabet as it existed in the day of Caesar (i.e., without lower case letters, "J", or "U"), Caesar's name would be rendered "GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR"; the form "CAIVS" is also attested, using the old Roman representation of G by C; it is an antique form of the more common "GAIVS". The standard abbreviation was, and this is not archaic, "C. IVLIVS CAESAR". (The letterform "Æ" is a ligature, which is often encountered in Latin inscriptions where it was used to save space, and is nothing more than the letters "ae".) In Classical Latin, it was pronounced . In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, Brutus. In Greek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written ''Καίσαρ'', reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German Kaiser. In Vulgar Latin, the plosive /k/ before front vowels began, due to palatalization, to be pronounced as an affricate – hence renderings like in Italian and in German regional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title of Tsar. With the evolution of the Romance languages, the affricate [ts] became a fricative [s] (thus, ) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. The original /k/ is preserved in Norse mythology, where he is manifested as the legendary king Kjárr.

Caesar's cognomen would itself become a title; it was greatly promulgated by the Bible, by the famous verse "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's". The title became the German Kaiser and Slavic Tsar/Czar. The last tsar in nominal power was Simeon II of Bulgaria whose reign ended in 1946; for two thousand years after Julius Caesar's assassination, there was at least one head of state bearing his name.

Parents

Father Gaius Julius Caesar the Elder

Mother Aurelia (related to the Aurelii Cottae)

Sisters

Julia Caesaris "Maior" (the elder)

Julia Caesaris "Minor" (the younger)

Wives

First marriage to Cornelia Cinnilla, from 83 BC until her death in childbirth in 69 or 68 BC

Second marriage to Pompeia, from 67 BC until he divorced her around 61 BC

Third marriage to Calpurnia Pisonis, from 59 BC until Caesar's death

Children

Julia with Cornelia Cinnilla, born in 83 or 82 BC

Caesarion, with Cleopatra VII, born 47 BC. He was killed at age 17 by Caesar's adopted son Octavianus.

''adopted'': Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, his great-nephew by blood, who later became Emperor Augustus.

Marcus Junius Brutus: The historian Plutarch notes that Caesar believed Brutus to have been his illegitimate son, as his mother Servilia had been Caesar's lover during their youth.

Grandchildren

Grandson from Julia and Pompey, dead at several days, unnamed.

Lovers

Cleopatra VII mother of Caesarion

Servilia Caepionis mother of Brutus

Eunoë, queen of Mauretania and wife of Bogudes

Notable relatives

Gaius Marius (married to his Aunt Julia)

Mark Antony

Lucius Julius Caesar

Julius Sabinus, a Gaul of the Lingones at the time of the Batavian rebellion of AD 69, claimed to be the great-grandson of Caesar on the grounds that his great-grandmother had been Caesar's lover during the Gallic war.

Political rumors

Roman society viewed the passive role during sexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, "Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar." According to Cicero, Bibulus, Gaius Memmius, and others (mainly Caesar's enemies), he had an affair with Nicomedes IV of Bithynia early in his career. The tales were repeated, referring to Caesar as the Queen of Bithynia, by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. It is very likely that the rumours were spread only as a form of character assassination; Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according to Cassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion. This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. A favorite tactic used by the opposition was to accuse a popular political rival as living a Hellenistic lifestyle based on Greek and Eastern culture, where homosexuality and a lavish lifestyle were more acceptable than in Roman tradition.

Catullus wrote two poems suggesting that Caesar and his engineer Mamurra were lovers, but later apologised.

Mark Antony charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as political slander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor.

Literary works

Caesar was considered during his lifetime to be one of the best orators and authors of prose in Rome—even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style. Among his most famous works were his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his ''Anticato'', a document written to blacken Cato's reputation and respond to Cicero's ''Cato'' memorial. Poems by Caesar are also mentioned in ancient sources. His works other than his war commentaries have been lost, although a few sentences are quoted by other authors.

Memoirs

The ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico'' (''Commentaries on the Gallic War''), campaigns in Gallia and Britannia during his term as proconsul; and

The ''Commentarii de Bello Civili'' (''Commentaries on the Civil War''), events of the Civil War until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt.

Other works historically attributed to Caesar, but whose authorship is doubted, are:

''De Bello Alexandrino'' (''On the Alexandrine War''), campaign in Alexandria;

''De Bello Africo'' (''On the African War''), campaigns in North Africa; and

''De Bello Hispaniensi'' (''On the Hispanic War''), campaigns in the Iberian peninsula.

These narratives were written and published on a yearly basis during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front". Apparently simple and direct in style—to the point that Caesar's ''Commentarii'' are commonly studied by first and second year Latin students—they are in fact highly sophisticated tracts, aimed most particularly at the middle-brow readership of minor aristocrats in Rome, Italy, and the provinces.

Legend and legacy

In the Middle Ages Caesar was created a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes encapsulating all the ideal qualities of chivalry.

Chronology of his life

Depictions

''For the marble bust from Arles discovered in 2007–8 alleged to be Caesar's likeness, and the ensuing controversy, see Arles portrait bust.''

See also

Comet Caesar

''Emperor: Young Caesar'' (film)

References

Primary sources

Own writings

Forum Romanum Index to Caesar's works online in Latin and translation

omnia munda mundis Hypertext of Caesar's De Bello Gallico

Ancient historians' writings

Appian, Book 13 (English translation)

Cassius Dio, Books 37–44 (English translation)

Plutarch on Antony (English translation, Dryden edition)

Plutarch: The Life of Julius Caesar (English translation)

Plutarch: The Life of Mark Antony (English translation)

Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar. (Latin and English, cross-linked: the English translation by J. C. Rolfe)

Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar (J. C. Rolfe English translation, modified)

Secondary sources

External links

C. Julius Caesar Jona Lendering's in‑depth history of Caesar (Livius. Org)

Guide to online resources

History of Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar at BBC History

Grey, D. The Assassination of Caesar, Clio History Journal, 2009.

Succession table

Caesar was acclaimed ''Imperator'' in 60 and 45 BC. In the Roman Republic, this was an honorary title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, an army's troops in the field would proclaim their commander ''imperator'', an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the Senate for a triumph. After being acclaimed ''imperator'', the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his triumph, where he would relinquish the title as well as his imperium.

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rue:Юлій Цезар

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Elfrida Andrée (19 February 1841 – 11 January 1929), was a Swedish organist, composer, and conductor.

Andrée was born in Visby. She was the pupil of Ludvig Norman and Niels Wilhelm Gade. Her sister was the singer Fredrika Stenhammar. An activist in the Swedish women's movement, she was one of the first female organists to be officially appointed in Scandinavia. She began work in Stockholm in 1861 and became the organist at Gothenburg Cathedral in 1867. For her services, she was elected to the Royal Swedish Academy of Music. She died in Gothenburg.

Andrée's two organ symphonies are still performed today. Her other compositions included the opera ''Fritiofs saga'' (1899, libretto by Selma Lagerlöf), several works for orchestra including two symphonies, a piano quartet in A minor (1870) and quintet in E minor (published in 1865), a piano trio in G minor (1887) (and another published posthumously in C minor), a string quartet in D minor from 1861 and another in A major, pieces for violin (including sonatas in E flat and B flat major) and for piano, two Swedish masses, an 1879 choral ballade "Snöfrid", and ''lieder.''

A 1996 recording on the label Caprice contained her piano quintet together with a piano sonata, the string quartet in D minor, and vocal music.

External links

Elfrida Andree Piano Quintet in e minor, sound-bites

Further reading

Eva Öhrström, ''Elfrida Andrée : ett levnadsöde'' Stockholm: Prisma, 1999. ISBN 91-518-3488-X.

Category:1841 births Category:1929 deaths Category:Swedish classical organists Category:Cathedral organists Category:Swedish composers Category:Romantic composers Category:Swedish conductors (music) Category:Swedish feminists Category:Women classical composers Category:19th-century Swedish people Category:People from Gotland Category:Women conductors (music)

de:Elfrida Andrée et:Elfrida Andrée fr:Elfrida Andrée lb:Elfrida Andrée ja:エルフリーダ・アンドレー ru:Андрее, Эльфрида sv:Elfrida Andrée