Digital art is a general term for a range of artistic works and practices that use digital technology as an essential part of the creative and/or presentation process. Since the 1970s, various names have been used to describe the process including computer art and multimedia art, and digital art is itself placed under the larger umbrella term new media art.

The impact of digital technology has transformed activities such as painting, drawing and sculpture, while new forms, such as net art, digital installation art, and virtual reality, have become recognized artistic practices. More generally the term digital artist is used to describe an artist who makes use of digital technologies in the production of art. In an expanded sense, "digital art" is a term applied to contemporary art that uses the methods of mass production or digital media.

Digital production techniques in visual media

The techniques of digital art are used extensively by the mainstream media in advertisements, and by film-makers to produce special effects. Desktop publishing has had a huge impact on the publishing world, although that is more related to graphic design. Both digital and traditional artists use many sources of electronic information and programs to create their work. Given the parallels between visual and musical arts, it is possible that general acceptance of the value of digital art will progress in much the same way as the increased acceptance of electronically produced music over the last three decades.

Digital art can be purely computer-generated (such as fractals and algorithmic art) or taken from other sources, such as a scanned photograph or an image drawn using vector graphics software using a mouse or graphics tablet. Though technically the term may be applied to art done using other media or processes and merely scanned in, it is usually reserved for art that has been non-trivially modified by a computing process (such as a computer program, microcontroller or any electronic system capable of interpreting an input to create an output); digitized text data and raw audio and video recordings are not usually considered digital art in themselves, but can be part of the larger project of computer art and information art. Artworks are considered digital painting when created in similar fashion to non-digital paintings but using software on a computer platform and digitally outputting the resulting image as painted on canvas.

Andy Warhol created digital art using a Commodore Amiga where the computer was publicly introduced at the Lincoln Center, New York in July 1985. An image of Debbie Harry was captured in monochrome from a video camera and digitized into a graphics program called ProPaint. Warhol manipulated the image adding colour by using flood fills.

Computer-generated visual media

There are two main paradigms in computer generated imagery. The simplest is 2D computer graphics which reflect how you might draw using a pencil and a piece of paper. In this case, however, the image is on the computer screen and the instrument you draw with might be a tablet stylus or a mouse. What is generated on your screen might appear to be drawn with a pencil, pen or paintbrush. The second kind is 3D computer graphics, where the screen becomes a window into a virtual environment, where you arrange objects to be "photographed" by the computer. Typically a 2D computer graphics use raster graphics as their primary means of source data representations, whereas 3D computer graphics use vector graphics in the creation of immersive virtual reality installations. A possible third paradigm is to generate art in 2D or 3D entirely through the execution of algorithms coded into computer programs and could be considered the native art form of the computer. That is, it cannot be produced without the computer. Fractal art, Datamoshing, algorithmic art and Dynamic Painting are examples.

Computer generated 3D still imagery

3D graphics are created via the process of designing complex imagery from geometric shapes, polygons or NURBS curves to create three-dimensional shapes, objects and scenes for use in various media such as film, television, print, rapid prototyping and the special visual effects.

There are many software programs for doing this. The technology can enable collaboration, lending itself to sharing and augmenting by a creative effort similar to the open source movement, and the creative commons in which users can collaborate in a project to create unique pieces of art.

Computer generated animated imagery

Computer-generated animations are animations created with a computer, from digital models created by the 3d artists or procedurally generated. The term is usually applied to works created entirely with a computer. Movies make heavy use of computer-generated graphics; they are called computer-generated imagery (CGI) in the film industry. In the 1990s, and early 2000s CGI advanced enough so that for the first time it was possible to create realistic 3D computer animation, although films had been using extensive computer images since the mid-70s. A number of modern films have been noted for their heavy use of photo realistic CGI.

Digital installation art

Digital installation art constitutes a broad field of activity and incorporates many forms. Some resemble video installations, particularly large scale works involving projections and live video capture. By using projection techniques that enhance an audiences impression of sensory envelopment, many digital installations attempt to create immersive environments. Others go even further and attempt to facilitate a complete immersion in virtual realms. This type of installation is generally site specific, scalable, and without fixed dimensionality, meaning it can be reconfigured to accommodate different presentation spaces.

Noah Wardrip-Fruin's interactive media art piece entitled "Screen" is an example of digital installation art. To view and interact with the piece, a user first enters a room, called the "Cave," which is a virtual reality display area with four walls surrounding the participant. White memory texts appear on the background of black walls. Through bodily interaction, such as using one's hand, a user can move and bounce the text around the walls. The words can be made into sentences and eventually begin to "peel" off and move more rapidly around the user, creating a heightening sense of misplacement.

"In addition to creating a new form of bodily interaction with text through its play, Screen moves the player through three reading experiences — beginning with the familiar, stable, page-like text on the walls, followed by the word-by-word reading of peeling and hitting (where attention is focused), and with more peripheral awareness of the arrangements of flocking words and the new (often neologistic) text being assembled on the walls. Screen was first shown in 2003 as part of the Boston Cyberarts Festival (in the Cave at Brown University) and documentation of it has since been featured at The Iowa Review Web, presented at SIGGRAPH 2003, included in Alt+Ctrl: a festival of independent and alternative games, published in the DVD magazines Aspect and Chaise, as well as in readings in the Hammer Museum's HyperText series, at ACM Hypertext 2004, and in other venues."

Subtypes

Art game

Computer art scene

Computer music

Cyberarts

Digital illustration

Digital imaging

Digital painting

Digital photography

Digital poetry

Dynamic Painting

Electronic music

Evolutionary art

Fractal art

Generative art

Generative music

Immersion (virtual reality)

Interactive art

Machinima

Motion graphics

Music visualization

Photo manipulation

Pixel art

Software art

Systems art

Textures

Tradigital art

Related Organizations and Conferences

Artmedia

Austin Museum of Digital Art

Computer Arts Society

See Also

Algorithmic art

Computer art

Computer graphics

Electronic Art

New Media Art

Virtual art

References

Category:Art media Category:Computer art * Category:New media Category:Electronic music Category:Art genres Category:Painting techniques Category:Conceptual art Category:Postmodern art Category:Contemporary art

ar:فن رقمي de:Digitale Kunst es:Arte digital fr:Art numérique hi:डिजिटल आर्ट it:Arte digitale he:אמנות דיגיטלית nl:Digitale kunst ja:デジタルアート pt:Arte digital ru:Цифровое искусство sr:Дигитална уметност sv:Digital konst tr:Dijital sanat zh:数字艺术

region	Western Philosophers
era	17th-century philosophy(Modern Philosophy)
colour	#B0C4DE
name	John Locke
signature	John Locke Signature.svg
birth date	29 August 1632
birth place	Wrington, Somerset, England
death place	Essex, England
school tradition	British Empiricism, Social Contract, Natural Law
main interests	Metaphysics, Epistemology, Political Philosophy, Philosophy of Mind, Education
influences	Plato, Aristotle, Avicenna, Ibn Tufail, Aquinas, Grotius, Samuel Rutherford, Descartes, Hooker, Robert Filmer, Hobbes, Polish Brethren (religious group, whose ideas were incorporated into Locke's theories)
influenced	Hume, Kant, Berkeley, Paine, Smith and many subsequent political philosophers, including the American Founding Fathers, Arthur Schopenhauer
notable ideas	Tabula rasa, "government with the consent of the governed"; state of nature; rights of life, liberty and property }}

John Locke (; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704), widely known as the ''Father of Liberalism'', was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work had a great impact upon the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the American Declaration of Independence.

Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as Hume, Rousseau and Kant. Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity of ''consciousness''. He postulated that the mind was a blank slate or ''tabula rasa''. Contrary to pre-existing Cartesian philosophy, he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived from sense perception.

Biography

Locke's father, who was also named John Locke, was a country lawyer and clerk to the Justices of the Peace in Chew Magna, who had served as a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian forces during the early part of the English Civil War. His mother, Agnes Keene, was a tanner's daughter and reputed to be very beautiful. Both parents were Puritans. Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a small thatched cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, about twelve miles from Bristol. He was baptised the same day. Soon after Locke's birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton.

In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Popham, a member of Parliament and his father's former commander. After completing his studies there, he was admitted to Christ Church, Oxford. The dean of the college at the time was John Owen, vice-chancellor of the university. Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. He found the works of modern philosophers, such as René Descartes, more interesting than the classical material taught at the university. Through his friend Richard Lower, whom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced to medicine and the experimental philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the English Royal Society, of which he eventually became a member.

Locke was awarded a bachelor's degree in 1656 and a master's degree in 1658. He obtained a bachelor of medicine in 1674, having studied medicine extensively during his time at Oxford and worked with such noted scientists and thinkers as Robert Boyle, Thomas Willis, Robert Hooke and Richard Lower. In 1666, he met Lord Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, who had come to Oxford seeking treatment for a liver infection. Cooper was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue.

Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667 moved into Shaftesbury's home at Exeter House in London, to serve as Lord Ashley's personal physician. In London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham. Sydenham had a major effect on Locke's natural philosophical thinking an effect that would become evident in the ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.''

Locke's medical knowledge was put to the test when Shaftesbury's liver infection became life-threatening. Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Shaftesbury to undergo an operation (then life-threatening itself) to remove the cyst. Shaftesbury survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life.

It was in Shaftesbury's household, during 1671, that the meeting took place, described in the Epistle to the reader of the Essay, which was the genesis of what would later become the Essay. Two extant Drafts still survive from this period. It was also during this time that Locke served as Secretary of the Board of Trade and Plantations and Secretary to the Lords and Proprietors of the Carolinas, helping to shape his ideas on international trade and economics. Shaftesbury, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Locke's political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury became Lord Chancellor in 1672. Following Shaftesbury's fall from favour in 1675, Locke spent some time travelling across France as tutor and medical attendant to Caleb Banks. He returned to England in 1679 when Shaftesbury's political fortunes took a brief positive turn. Around this time, most likely at Shaftesbury's prompting, Locke composed the bulk of the ''Two Treatises of Government''. While it was once thought that Locke wrote the Treatises to defend the Glorious Revolution of 1688, recent scholarship has shown that the work was composed well before this date, however, and it is now viewed as a more general argument against Absolute monarchy (particularly as espoused by Robert Filmer and Thomas Hobbes) and for individual consent as the basis of political legitimacy. Though Locke was associated with the influential Whigs, his ideas about natural rights and government are today considered quite revolutionary for that period in English history.

However, Locke fled to the Netherlands in 1683, under strong suspicion of involvement in the Rye House Plot, although there is little evidence to suggest that he was directly involved in the scheme. In the Netherlands, Locke had time to return to his writing, spending a great deal of time re-working the Essay and composing the Letter on Toleration. Locke did not return home until after the Glorious Revolution. Locke accompanied William of Orange's wife back to England in 1688. The bulk of Locke's publishing took place upon his return from exile his aforementioned ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'', the ''Two Treatises of Civil Government'' and ''A Letter Concerning Toleration'' all appearing in quick succession.

Locke's close friend Lady Masham invited him to join her at the Mashams' country house in Essex. Although his time there was marked by variable health from asthma attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the Whigs. During this period he discussed matters with such figures as John Dryden and Isaac Newton.

He died in 28 October 1704, and is buried in the churchyard of the village of High Laver, east of Harlow in Essex, where he had lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since 1691. Locke never married nor had children.

Events that happened during Locke's lifetime include the English Restoration, the Great Plague of London and the Great Fire of London. He did not quite see the Act of Union of 1707, though the thrones of England and Scotland were held in personal union throughout his lifetime. Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy were in their infancy during Locke's time.

Influence

Locke exercised a profound influence on political philosophy, in particular on modern liberalism. Michael Zuckert has argued that Locke launched liberalism by tempering Hobbesian absolutism and clearly separating the realms of Church and State. He had a strong influence on Voltaire who called him "le sage Locke". His arguments concerning liberty and the social contract later influenced the written works of Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and other Founding Fathers of the United States. In fact, one passage from the ''Second Treatise'' is reproduced verbatim in the Declaration of Independence, the reference to a "long train of abuses." Such was Locke's influence that Thomas Jefferson wrote: "Bacon, Locke and Newton ... I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences". Today, most contemporary libertarians claim Locke as an influence.

But Locke's influence may have been even more profound in the realm of epistemology. Locke redefined subjectivity, or self, and intellectual historians such as Charles Taylor and Jerrold Seigel argue that Locke's ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' (1690) marks the beginning of the modern Western conception of the self.

Theories of religious tolerance

Locke, writing his ''Letters Concerning Toleration'' (1689–92) in the aftermath of the European wars of religion, formulated a classic reasoning for religious tolerance. Three arguments are central: (1) Earthly judges, the state in particular, and human beings generally, cannot dependably evaluate the truth-claims of competing religious standpoints; (2) Even if they could, enforcing a single "true religion" would not have the desired effect, because belief cannot be compelled by violence; (3) Coercing religious uniformity would lead to more social disorder than allowing diversity.

Constitution of Carolina

Appraisals of Locke have often been tied to appraisals of liberalism in general, and also to appraisals of the United States. Detractors note that (in 1671) he was a major investor in the English slave-trade through the Royal African Company, as well as through his participation in drafting the ''Fundamental Constitution of the Carolinas'' while Shaftesbury's secretary, which established a feudal aristocracy and gave a master absolute power over his slaves. For example, Martin Cohen notes that as a secretary to the Council of Trade and Plantations (1673–4) and a member of the Board of Trade (1696–1700) Locke was, in fact, "one of just half a dozen men who created and supervised both the colonies and their iniquitous systems of servitude". Some see his statements on unenclosed property as having been intended to justify the displacement of the Native Americans. Because of his opposition to aristocracy and slavery in his major writings, he is accused of hypocrisy and racism, or of caring only for the liberty of English capitalists.

Theory of value and property

Locke uses the word property in both broad and narrow senses. In a broad sense, it covers a wide range of human interests and aspirations; more narrowly, it refers to material goods. He argues that property is a natural right and it is derived from labour.

In Chapter V of his ''Second Treatise'', Locke argues that the individual ownership of goods and property is justified by the labour exerted to produce those goods or utilise property to produce goods beneficial to human society.

Locke stated his belief, in his ''Second Treatise'', that nature on its own provides little of value to society; he provides the implication that the labour expended in the creation of goods gives them their value. This is used as supporting evidence for the interpretation of Locke's labour theory of property as a labour theory of value, in his implication that goods produced by nature are of little value, unless combined with labour in their production and that labour is what gives goods their value.

Locke believed that ownership of property is created by the application of labour. In addition, he believed property precedes government and government cannot "dispose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily." Karl Marx later critiqued Locke's theory of property in his own social theory.

Political theory

Locke's political theory was founded on social contract theory. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature is characterised by reason and tolerance. Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allowed men to be selfish. This is apparent with the introduction of currency. In a natural state all people were equal and independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend his “Life, health, Liberty, or Possessions", basis for the phrase in the American Declaration of Independence; ''"Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness"''.

Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to defend in the state of nature was not enough, so people established a civil society to resolve conflicts in a civil way with help from government in a state of society. However, Locke never refers to Hobbes by name and may instead have been responding to other writers of the day. Locke also advocated governmental separation of powers and believed that revolution is not only a right but an obligation in some circumstances. These ideas would come to have profound influence on the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.

Limits to accumulation

Labour creates property, but it also does contain limits to its accumulation: man’s capacity to produce and man’s capacity to consume. According to Locke, unused property is waste and an offence against nature. However, with the introduction of “durable” goods, men could exchange their excessive perishable goods for goods that would last longer and thus not offend the natural law. The introduction of money marks the culmination of this process. Money makes possible the unlimited accumulation of property without causing waste through spoilage. He also includes gold or silver as money because they may be “hoarded up without injury to anyone,” since they do not spoil or decay in the hands of the possessor. The introduction of money eliminates the limits of accumulation. Locke stresses that inequality has come about by tacit agreement on the use of money, not by the social contract establishing civil society or the law of land regulating property. Locke is aware of a problem posed by unlimited accumulation but does not consider it his task. He just implies that government would function to moderate the conflict between the unlimited accumulation of property and a more nearly equal distribution of wealth and does not say which principles that government should apply to solve this problem. However, not all elements of his thought form a consistent whole. For example, labour theory of value of the Two Treatises of Government stands side by side with the demand-and-supply theory developed in a letter he wrote titled ''Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money''. Moreover, Locke anchors property in labour but in the end upholds the unlimited accumulation of wealth.

On price theory

Locke’s general theory of value and price is a supply and demand theory, which was set out in a letter to a Member of Parliament in 1691, titled ''Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money''. Supply is quantity and demand is rent. “The price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyer and sellers.” and “that which regulates the price... [of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent.” The quantity theory of money forms a special case of this general theory. His idea is based on “money answers all things” (Ecclesiastes) or “rent of money is always sufficient, or more than enough,” and “varies very little...” Regardless of whether the demand for money is unlimited or constant, Locke concludes that as far as money is concerned, the demand is exclusively regulated by its quantity. He also investigates the determinants of demand and supply. For supply, goods in general are considered valuable because they can be exchanged, consumed and they must be scarce. For demand, goods are in demand because they yield a flow of income. Locke develops an early theory of capitalisation, such as land, which has value because “by its constant production of saleable commodities it brings in a certain yearly income.” Demand for money is almost the same as demand for goods or land; it depends on whether money is wanted as medium of exchange or as loanable funds. For medium of exchange “money is capable by exchange to procure us the necessaries or conveniences of life.” For loanable funds, “it comes to be of the same nature with land by yielding a certain yearly income ... or interest.”

Monetary thoughts

Locke distinguishes two functions of money, as a "counter" to measure value, and as a "pledge" to lay claim to goods. He believes that silver and gold, as opposed to paper money, are the appropriate currency for international transactions. Silver and gold, he says, are treated to have equal value by all of humanity and can thus be treated as a pledge by anyone, while the value of paper money is only valid under the government which issues it.

Locke argues that a country should seek a favourable balance of trade, lest it fall behind other countries and suffer a loss in its trade. Since the world money stock grows constantly, a country must constantly seek to enlarge its own stock. Locke develops his theory of foreign exchanges, in addition to commodity movements, there are also movements in country stock of money, and movements of capital determine exchange rates. The latter is less significant and less volatile than commodity movements. As for a country’s money stock, if it is large relative to that of other countries, it will cause the country’s exchange to rise above par, as an export balance would do.

He also prepares estimates of the cash requirements for different economic groups (landholders, labourers and brokers). In each group the cash requirements are closely related to the length of the pay period. He argues the brokers – middlemen – whose activities enlarge the monetary circuit and whose profits eat into the earnings of labourers and landholders, had a negative influence on both one's personal and the public economy that they supposedly contributed to.

The self

Locke defines the self as "that conscious thinking thing, (whatever substance, made up of whether spiritual, or material, simple, or compounded, it matters not) which is sensible, or conscious of pleasure and pain, capable of happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself, as far as that consciousness extends". He does not, however, ignore "substance", writing that "the body too goes to the making the man." The Lockean self is therefore a self-aware and self-reflective consciousness that is fixed in a body.

In his ''Essay'', Locke explains the gradual unfolding of this conscious mind. Arguing against both the Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and the Cartesian position, which holds that man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an "empty" mind, a ''tabula rasa'', which is shaped by experience; sensations and reflections being the two sources of all our ideas.

John Locke's formulation of tabula rasa in ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' was influenced by a 17th century Latin translation ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' (published by Edward Pococke) of the Arabic philosophical novel ''Hayy ibn Yaqzan'' by the 12th century Andalusian-Islamic philosopher and novelist Ibn Tufail (known as "Abubacer" or "Ebn Tophail" in the West). Ibn Tufail demonstrated the theory of tabula rasa as a thought experiment through his Arabic philosophical novel novel ''Hayy ibn Yaqzan'' in which he depicted the development of the mind of a feral child "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a desert island, through experience alone.

Locke's ''Some Thoughts Concerning Education'' is an outline on how to educate this mind: he expresses the belief that education maketh the man, or, more fundamentally, that the mind is an "empty cabinet", with the statement, "I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education."

Locke also wrote that "the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences." He argued that the "associations of ideas" that one makes when young are more important than those made later because they are the foundation of the self: they are, put differently, what first mark the ''tabula rasa''. In his ''Essay'', in which is introduced both of these concepts, Locke warns against, for example, letting "a foolish maid" convince a child that "goblins and sprites" are associated with the night for "darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the other."

"Associationism", as this theory would come to be called, exerted a powerful influence over eighteenth-century thought, particularly educational theory, as nearly every educational writer warned parents not to allow their children to develop negative associations. It also led to the development of psychology and other new disciplines with David Hartley's attempt to discover a biological mechanism for associationism in his ''Observations on Man'' (1749).

Religious beliefs

Some scholars have seen Locke's political convictions as deriving from his religious beliefs. Locke's religious trajectory began in Calvinist trinitarianism, but by the time of the ''Reflections'' (1695) Locke was advocating not just Socinian views on tolerance but also Socinian Christology; with veiled denial of the pre-existence of Christ. However Wainwright (Oxford, 1987) notes that in the posthumously published ''Paraphrase'' (1707) Locke's interpretation of one verse, Ephesians 1:10, is markedly different from that of Socinians like Biddle, and may indicate that near the end of his life Locke returned nearer to an Arian position.

List of major works

(1689) ''A Letter Concerning Toleration''

*(1690) ''A Second Letter Concerning Toleration''

*(1692) ''A Third Letter for Toleration''

(1689) ''Two Treatises of Government''

(1690) ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding''

(1693) ''Some Thoughts Concerning Education''

(1695) ''The Reasonableness of Christianity, as Delivered in the Scriptures''

*(1695) ''A Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity''

Major unpublished or posthumous manuscripts

(1660) ''First Tract of Government'' (or ''the English Tract'')

(''c.''1662) ''Second Tract of Government'' (or ''the Latin Tract'')

(1664) ''Questions Concerning the Law of Nature'' (definitive Latin text, with facing accurate English trans. in Robert Horwitz et al., eds., John Locke, ''Questions Concerning the Law of Nature'', Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990).

(1667) ''Essay Concerning Toleration''

(1706) ''Of the Conduct of the Understanding''

(1707) ''A paraphrase and notes on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans, Ephesians''

See also

Libertarianism

List of liberal theorists

References

Notes

Secondary literature

Ashcraft, Richard, 1986. ''Revolutionary Politics & Locke's Two Treatises of Government.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press. (Discusses the relationship between Locke's philosophy and his political activities.)

Ayers, Michael R., 1991. ''Locke. Epistemology & Ontology'' Routledge (The standard work on Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding.)

Bailyn, Bernard, 1992 (1967). ''The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution''. Harvard Uni. Press. (Discusses the influence of Locke and other thinkers upon the American Revolution and on subsequent American political thought.)

G. A. Cohen, 1995. 'Marx and Locke on Land and Labour', in his ''Self-Ownership, Freedom and Equality'', Oxford University Press.

Cox, Richard, ''Locke on War and Peace'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960. (A discussion of Locke's theory of international relations.)

Chappell, Vere, ed., 19nn. ''The Cambridge Companion to Locke''. Cambridge Uni. Press.

Dunn, John, 1984. ''Locke''. Oxford Uni. Press. (A succinct introduction.)

—, 1969. ''The Political Thought of John Locke: An Historical Account of the Argument of the "Two Treatises of Government"''. Cambridge Uni. Press. (Introduced the interpretation which emphasises the theological element in Locke's political thought.)

Hudson, Nicholas, "John Locke and the Tradition of Nominalism," in: ''Nominalism and Literary Discourse'', ed. Hugo Keiper, Christoph Bode, and Richard Utz (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1997), pp. 283–99.

Macpherson. C. B. ''The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962). (Establishes the deep affinity from Hobbes to Harrington, the Levellers, and Locke through to nineteenth-century utilitarianism).

Pangle, Thomas, ''The Spirit of Modern Republicanism: The Moral Vision of the American Founders and the Philosophy of Locke'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988; paperback ed., 1990), 334 pages. (Challenges Dunn's, Tully's, Yolton's, and other conventional readings.)

Strauss, Leo. ''Natural Right and History'', chap. 5B (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953). (Argues from a non-Marxist point of view for a deep affinity between Hobbes and Locke.)

Strauss, Leo. "Locke's Doctrine of Natural law," ''American Political Science Review'' 52 (1958) 490–501. (A critique of W. von Leyden's edition of Locke's unpublished writings on natural law.)

Tully, James, 1980. ''A Discourse on Property : John Locke and his Adversaries''. Cambridge Uni. Press

Waldron, Jeremy, 2002. ''God, Locke and Equality''. Cambridge Uni. Press.

Yolton, J. W., ed., 1969. ''John Locke: Problems and Perspectives''. Cambridge Uni. Press.

Zuckert, Michael, ''Launching Liberalism: On Lockean Political Philosophy''. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.

''Locke Studies'', appearing annually, publishes scholarly work on John Locke.

External links

Works

Links to online books by John Locke

''The Works of John Locke''

*1823 Edition, 10 Volumes on PDF files, and additional resources

*1824 Edition, 9 volumes in multiple formats

John Locke Manuscripts

Updated versions of ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'', ''Second Treatise of Government'', and ''Letter on Toleration'', edited by Jonathan Bennett

Locke, ''Two Treatises of Government,'' ed. Thomas Hollis (A. Millar et al., 1764) ''See original text in The Online Library of Liberty''

Resources

Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Locke

John Locke Bibliography

John Locke’s Theory of Knowledge by Caspar Hewett

The Digital Locke Project

Portraits of Locke

Locke links

A complex and positive answer to question Was Locke a Liberal? – by Jerome Huyler

Timeline of the Life and Work of John Locke at The Online Library of Liberty

Locke on Property: A Bibliographical Essay by Karen Vaughn The Online Library of Liberty.

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name	Fernanda Viégas
birthname	Fernanda Bertini Viégas
field	visualization, design, interactive art, journalism
work institution	IBM Research
alma mater	Ph.D. Media Arts & Sciences, MIT Media Laboratory
known for	History Flow, Many Eyes, Chat Circles
residence	Cambridge, Massachusetts
nationality	Brazilian
awards	}}

Fernanda Bertini Viégas is a Brazilian scientist and designer whose work focuses on the social, collaborative, and artistic aspects of information visualization. Viégas received a Ph.D. in Media Arts and Sciences from the MIT Media Lab in 2005. The same year she began work at the Cambridge location of IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center as part of the Visual Communication Lab. In April 2010, she and Martin M. Wattenberg started a new venture called Flowing Media, Inc., to focus on visualization aimed at consumers and mass audiences. Four months later, both of them joined Google as the co-leaders of the Google's "Big Picture" data visualization group in Cambridge, MA.

Social visualization

Viégas began her research while at the MIT Media Lab, focusing on graphical interfaces for online communication. Her Chat Circles system introduced ideas such as proximity-based filtering of conversation and a visual archive of chat history displaying the overall rhythm and form of a conversation. Her email visualization designs (including PostHistory and Themail) are the foundation for many other systems; her findings on how visualizations are often used for storytelling influenced subsequent work on the collaborative aspects of visualization. While at MIT, she also studied usage of Usenet and blogs.

Collective intelligence and public visualization

A second stream of work, in partnership with Martin Wattenberg, centers on collective intelligence and the public use of data visualization.

Her work with visualizations such as History Flow and Chromogram led to some of the earliest publications on the dynamics of Wikipedia, including the first scientific study of the repair of vandalism.

Viégas is one of the founders of IBM's experimental Many Eyes web site, created in 2007, which seeks to make visualization technology accessible to the public. In addition to broad uptake from individuals, the technology from Many Eyes has been used by nonprofits and news outlets such as the New York Times Visualization Lab.

Art

Viégas is also known for her artistic work, which uses the medium of visualization for explorations of emotionally charged data. An early example is Artifacts of the Presence Era, an interactive installation at the Boston Center for the Arts in 2003, which featured a video-based timeline of visitor interactions with the museum. The Fleshmap series (started in 2008) uses visualization to portray aspects of sensuality, and includes work on the web, video, and installations.

Publications

''Chat Circles''. Fernanda B. Viégas and Judith Donath. ACM Conference on Computer-Human Interaction (CHI), 1999

''Persistent Conversations'', Judith Donath, Karrie Karahalios and Fernanda B. Viégas . Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, Vol. 4, Number 4, June 1999

''Studying Cooperation and Conflict between Authors with history flow Visualizations''. Fernanda B. Viégas, Martin Wattenberg, and Kushal Dave. ACM Conference on Computer-Human Interaction (CHI), 2004

''Many Eyes: A Site for Visualization at Internet Scale''. Fernanda B. Viégas, Martin Wattenberg, Frank van Ham, Jesse Kriss, Matt McKeon. IEEE Symposium on Information Visualization, 2007

References

External links

Fernanda B. Viégas Personal home page for Viégas

Academic publications listed on IBM's site.

Many Eyes Experimental public visualization site.

History flow Project page for Wikipedia visualizations.

Chat Circles Graphical chat environment.

Fleshmap Site for the "Fleshmap" series of artworks.

Category:Visualization experts Category:Human–computer interaction Category:Human-computer interaction researchers Category:Contemporary artists Category:Digital artists Category:Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni Category:IBM employees Category:Living people

pt:Fernanda Viégas

Name	Mitchell Joachim
Birth date	February 03, 1972
Birth place	NJ, USA
Residence	New York
Field	Urban design, Architecture
Work institutions	Planetary ONE + Terreform ONE
Alma mater	MIT, Harvard Graduate School of Design, Columbia University
Doctoral advisor	William J. Mitchell
Known for	Fab Tree Hab, Sustainable design, MIT Car
Signature	}}

Mitchell Joachim (pronounced /jo-ak-um/; born February 3, 1972) is acknowledged as an innovator in ecological design and urban design. He is also a researcher, and architectural educator. Mitchell Joachim's specific professional interest has been adapting principles of physical and social ecology to architecture, urban design, transport, and environmental planning.

He is a Partner at Planetary ONE, and Co-Founder at Terreform ONE. Dr. Joachim is an Associate Professor at NYU, and the European Graduate School. Previously he was the Frank Gehry Chair at University of Toronto. Earlier, he was faculty at Pratt, Columbia, Syracuse, Washington, and Parsons. Formerly an architect at Gehry Partners, and Pei Cobb Freed. He has been awarded a Senior Fellowship at TED 2011, Moshe Safdie and Assoc. Fellowship, and Martin Society for Sustainability Fellowship at MIT. He won the Zumtobel Group Award, History Channel and Infiniti Design Excellence Award for the City of the Future, and Time Magazine Best Invention of the Year 2007, MIT Car w/ MIT Smart Cities. His project, Fab Tree Hab, has been exhibited at MoMA and widely published. He was selected by Wired magazine for "The 2008 Smart List: 15 People the Next President Should Listen To". Rolling Stone magazine honored Mitchell as an agent of change in "The 100 People Who Are Changing America". In 2009 he was interviewed on the Colbert Report Popular Science magazine has featured his work as a visionary for “The Future of the Environment” in 2010. Mitchell was the Winner of the Victor Papanek Social Design Award sponsored by the University of Applied Arts Vienna, the Austrian Cultural Forum New York, and the Museum of Arts and Design in 2011.

Education

He earned a Ph.D. at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in the Dept. of Architecture, Design and Computation program , a Master of Architecture in Urban Design (MAUD) at Harvard Graduate School of Design (GSD), a M.Arch at Columbia University GSAPP, and a BPS at the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York with Honors.

Design Projects

Fab Tree Hab

MIT Car

Rapid Re(f)use Urbaneering Brooklyn: City of the Future SOFT Lamb Car Green Brain: Smart Park for a New City New York 2106: Self-Sufficient City Jetpack Packing and Blimp Bumper Bus

Selected Publications

Mitchell Joachim, “Envisioning Ecological Cities,” Ecological Urbanism, Mohsen Mostafavi and Gareth Doherty (ed.), pp. 224–29, Harvard University GSD, Lars Muller Publishers, 2010.

John Bradley, "Future of The Environment: The Urban Remodeler," Popular Science, pp. cover, 7, 46-47, July 2010.

Mitchell Joachim, “Agora: Dreams and Visions,” l’Arca, pp. 4– 11, N° 246, April, 2009.

Mitchell Joachim, “Housing for the 21st Century; Urban Refuse, Housing & Wall-E,” eVolo magazine, pp. 62–63, issue 01, Fall, 2009.

Maywa Montenegro, “The Seed Salon: Thomas Lovejoy & Mitchell Joachim,” Seed, pp. 39–44, issue #22, June, 2009.

Matt Pascarella, “Philippe Starck & Mitchell Joachim; Designs for Violence, Ecology, Religion & Politics”, TAR, pp. 198–209, Issue 2, Spring, 2009.

“The RS 100: Agents of Change,” Rolling Stone, p. 63, April 2, 2009.

Tom Vanderbilt, “The 2008 Smart List: Mitchell Joachim, Redesign Cities from Scratch,” Wired, pp. 178–9, 16.10, Oct, 2008.

Michelle Galindo (ed.), 1000X Architecture of the Americas, Verlagshaus Braun, p. 429, 2008.

Tim Groen, Relax - Interiors for Human Wellness, p. 250-3, Birkhäuser, 2007.

Linda Stern, “Terreform: Building Houses Out of Living Trees,” Newsweek, p. E2, May 28, 2007.

Craig Kellogg, “Tree/House,” Interior Design, p. 48, Vol. 78, issue #1, Jan. 1, 2007.

Axel Ritter, Smart Materials: Types, Products, Architecture, pp. 10–11, 142, 160, Birkhäuser, 2006.

Richard Burdett, Cities: Architecture and Society 10, Internazional Di Architettura, International Architectural Exhibition, V.1-2, p. 301, 2006.

Robin Pogrebin, “Visions of Manhattan: For the City, 100-Year Makeovers,” The New York Times, p. A9, Nov. 4, 2006.

Gregory Mone, “Grow Your Second Home,” Popular Science, pp. 38–9, Nov, 2006.

Geeta Dayal, “A Sheep at the Wheel,” Intersection, Issue 03, p. 78-79, 2006.

Mitchell Joachim, Javier Arbona, Lara Greden, “Nature's Home,” 306090 08: Autonomous Urbanism, Kjersti Monson & Alex Duval, ed., NY: Princeton Architectural Press, 2005.

David J. Brown, The HOME House Project: The Future of Affordable Housing, MIT Press, 2005.

Phil Patton, “At M.I.T., Rethinking the Car for City Life,” The New York Times, p. D9, Sep. 6, 2004.

Catherine Fox, “How Harvard would remake Atlanta,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Jun. 3, 2001.

External links

Archinode Studio.

Terreform ONE.

Terrefuge.

Mitchell Joachim Faculty Page at European Graduate School

Don't Build your Home - Grow it. TED Talk. 5 min.

References

Category:1972 births Category:Living people Category:Harvard University alumni Category:Columbia University alumni Category:Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni Category:European Graduate School faculty Category:American architects Category:American industrial designers Category:Sustainability advocates Category:Futurologists Category:New York University faculty

de:Mitchell Joachim