Logical conjunction

The analogue of conjunction for a (possibly infinite) family of statements is universal quantification, which is part of predicate logic.

Notation

Definition

Truth table

The truth table of $~A\; \backslash and\; B$:

{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em" |- bgcolor="#ddeeff" align="center" |colspan=2|INPUT || OUTPUT |- bgcolor="#ddeeff" align="center" | A || B || A AND B |- bgcolor="#ddffdd" align="center" |0 || 0 || 0 |- bgcolor="#ddffdd" align="center" |0 || 1 || 0 |- bgcolor="#ddffdd" align="center" |1 || 0 || 0 |- bgcolor="#ddffdd" align="center" |1 || 1 || 1 |}

Introduction and elimination rules

:A, :B. :Therefore, A and B.

or in logical operator notation: :$A,$ :$B$ :$\backslash vdash\; A\; \backslash and\; B$

Here is an example of an argument that fits the form conjunction introduction:

:Bob likes apples. :Bob likes oranges. :Therefore, Bob likes apples and oranges.

Conjunction elimination is another classically valid, simple argument form. Intuitively, it permits the inference from any conjunction of either element of that conjunction.

:A and B. :Therefore, A.

...or alternately,

:A and B. :Therefore, B.

In logical operator notation: :$A\; \backslash and\; B$ :$\backslash vdash\; A$

...or alternately,

:$A\; \backslash and\; B$ :$\backslash vdash\; B$

Properties

*associativity: $a\; \backslash land\; (b\; \backslash land\; c)\; \backslash equiv\; (a\; \backslash land\; b)\; \backslash land\; c$

*commutativity: $a\; \backslash land\; b\; \backslash equiv\; b\; \backslash land\; a$

*distributivity: $(a\; \backslash land\; (b\; \backslash lor\; c))\; \backslash equiv\; ((a\; \backslash land\; b)\; \backslash lor\; (a\; \backslash land\; c))$ :::$(a\; \backslash land\; (b\; \backslash land\; c))\; \backslash equiv\; ((a\; \backslash land\; b)\; \backslash land\; (a\; \backslash land\; c))$

*idempotency: $a\; \backslash land\; a\; \backslash equiv\; a$

*monotonicity: $(a\; \backslash rightarrow\; b)\; \backslash rightarrow\; ((c\; \backslash land\; a)\; \backslash rightarrow\; (c\; \backslash land\; b))$ :::$(a\; \backslash rightarrow\; b)\; \backslash rightarrow\; ((a\; \backslash land\; c)\; \backslash rightarrow\; (b\; \backslash land\; c))$

*truth-preserving: The interpretation under which all variables are assigned a truth value of 'true' produces a truth value of 'true' as a result of conjunction.

*falsehood-preserving: The interpretation under which all variables are assigned a truth value of 'false' produces a truth value of 'false' as a result of conjunction.

If using binary values for true (1) and false (0), then logical conjunction works exactly like normal arithmetic multiplication.

Applications in computer programming

In high-level computer programming and digital electronics, logical conjunction is commonly represented by an infix operator, usually as a keyword such as "AND", an algebraic multiplication, or the ampersand symbol "&". Many languages also provide short-circuit control structures corresponding to logical conjunction.

Logical conjunction is often used for bitwise operations, where 0 corresponds to false and 1 to true:

* 0 AND 0  =  0,

The operation can also be applied to two binary words viewed as bitstrings of equal length, by taking the bitwise AND of each pair of bits at corresponding positions. For example:

* 11000110 AND 10100011  =  10000010.

This can be used to select part of a bitstring using a bit mask. For example, 10011101 AND 00001000  =  00001000 extracts the fifth bit of an 8-bit bitstring.

In computer networking, bit masks are used to derive the network address of a subnet within an existing network from a given IP address, by ANDing the IP address and the subnet mask.

Logical conjunction "AND" is also used in SQL operations to form database queries.

The Curry-Howard correspondence relates logical conjunction to product types.

Set-theoretic intersection

Natural language

English "and" has properties not captured by logical conjunction. For example, "and" sometimes implies order. For example, "They got married and had a child" in common discourse means that the marriage came before the child. The word "and" can also imply a partition of a thing into parts, as "The American flag is red, white, and blue." Here it is not meant that the flag is at once red, white, and blue, but rather that it has a part of each color.

See also

External links

Category:Logical connectives Category:Boolean algebra Category:Binary operations Category:Propositional calculus