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Jovan Cvijić
Jovan Cvijić (Serbian Cyrillic: Јован Цвијић) (1865 – 1927) was a Serbian geographer, president of the Serbian Royal Academy of Sciences and rector of the University of Belgrade.
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California (pronounced ) is the most populous state in the United States and the third-largest by land area, after Alaska and Texas. California is also the most populous sub-national entity in North America. It's on the U.S. West Coast, bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the west and by the states of Oregon to the north, Nevada to the east, Arizona to the southeast, Baja California, Mexico, to the south. Its 5 largest cities are Los Angeles, San Diego, San Jose, San Francisco, and Long Beach, with Los Angeles, San Diego, and San Jose each having at least 1 million residents. Like many populous states, California's capital, Sacramento is smaller than the state's largest city, Los Angeles. The state is home to the nation's 2nd- and 6th-largest census statistical areas and 8 of the nation's 50 most populous cities. California has a varied climate and geography and a multi-cultural population.
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The Great Blue Hole is a large underwater sinkhole off the coast of Belize. It lies near the center of Lighthouse Reef, a small atoll from the mainland and Belize City. The hole is circular in shape, over across and deep. It has formed during several episodes of Quaternary glaciation when sea levels were much lower - the analysis of stalactites found in Great Blue Hole shows that formation has taken place 153,000; 66,000; 60,000; and 15,000 years ago. As the ocean began to rise again, the caves were flooded. The Great Blue Hole is a part of the larger Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System, a World Heritage Site of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
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Ha Long Bay (literally: "Descending Dragon Bay"; ) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and a popular travel destination, located in Quảng Ninh province, Vietnam. Administratively, the bay belongs to Ha Long City, Cẩm Phả town, and part of Van Don district. The bay features thousands of limestone karsts and isles in various sizes and shapes.
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Iowa () is a state located in the Midwestern United States, an area often referred to as the "American Heartland." It derives its name from the Ioway people, one of the many American Indian tribes that occupied the state at the time of European exploration. Iowa was a part of the French colony of New France. After the Louisiana Purchase, settlers laid the foundation for an agriculture-based economy in the heart of the Corn Belt. Iowa is often known as the "Food Capital of the World", however Iowa's economy, culture, and landscape are diverse. In the mid and late 20th century, Iowa's agricultural economy transitioned to a diversified economy of advanced manufacturing, processing, financial services, biotechnology, and green energy production. Iowa has been listed as one of the safest states in which to live. Des Moines is Iowa's capital and largest city.
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Italy (; ), officially the Italian Republic (), is a country located in south-central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia — the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea — and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, whilst Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.4 million inhabitants, it is the sixth most populous country in Europe, and the twenty-third most populous in the world.
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Kras (; ), also known as the Karst or the Karst Plateau, is a limestone borderline plateau region in southwestern Slovenia extending into northeastern Italy. It lies between the Vipava Valley, the low hills surrounding the valley, the westernmost part of the Brkini Hills, northern Istria, and the Gulf of Trieste. The western edge of the plateau also marks the traditional ethnic border between Italians and Slovenes.
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Lozère (; ), is a department in southeast France near the Massif Central, named after Mont Lozère.
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New Mexico() is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also part of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth- most sparsely inhabited U.S. state.
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San Diego (), named after Saint Didacus (Spanish: Diego de Alcalá), is the eighth-largest city in the United States and second-largest city in California, after Los Angeles, with a population of 1,359,132 (Jan 2010) within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of San Diego extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of 2,880,000. Also, this is part of a megalopolis (the San Diego and Los Angeles metropolitan areas) with a population of about 22 million. It is located on the Pacific Ocean at the southernmost end of the west coast of the continental United States.
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Serbia (pronounced: ), officially the Republic of Serbia (), is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central- and Southeastern Europe, covering the southern lowlands of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans. Serbia borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; the Republic of Macedonia to the south; and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro to the west; its border with Albania is disputed. Serbia's capital city, Belgrade, is among the most populous in Southeastern Europe.
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Slovenia ( ), officially the Republic of Slovenia (, ), is a country in Central Europe touching the Alps and bordering the Mediterranean. Slovenia borders Italy on the west, the Adriatic Sea on the southwest, Croatia on the south and east, Hungary on the northeast, and Austria on the north. The capital and largest city of Slovenia is Ljubljana.
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Victoria is the second most populous state in Australia. Geographically the smallest mainland state, Victoria is bordered by New South Wales to the north, South Australia to the west, and Tasmania to the south, across Bass Strait. Victoria is the most densely populated state, and has a highly centralised population, with almost 75% of Victorians living in Melbourne, the state capital and largest city. Approximately 30,000 Indigenous Australians are estimated to have lived in the area, before European settlement in Victoria began in the 1830s. The discovery of gold in 1851 at Ballarat and Warrandyte transformed it into a leading industrial and commercial centre.
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Vietnam ( ; , ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (, ), is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by People's Republic of China (PRC) to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea, referred to as East Sea (), to the east. With a population of over 86 million, Vietnam is the 13th most populous country in the world.
http://wn.com/Vietnam
- acid
- aquifer
- Arroyo Tapiado
- Australia
- bedrock
- bioerosion
- calcium carbonate
- California
- carbon dioxide
- carbonate rock
- carbonic acid
- cave
- cenote
- Croatian language
- Dent de Crolles
- Discus macclintocki
- dolomite
- dolostone
- Earth's atmosphere
- erosion
- foibe
- France
- Frasassi Caves
- geographer
- German language
- Glaciokarst
- granite
- Great Blue Hole
- Groundwater
- gypsum
- Halong Bay
- ice age
- Indo-European
- Iowa
- Italy
- Jovan Cvijić
- Jura mountains
- karst fenster
- Kras
- Labertouche Cave
- landfill
- lava
- Lechuguilla Cave
- Lighthouse Reef
- limestone
- limestone pavement
- List of landforms
- Ljubljanica
- Loue
- Lozère
- makatea
- mogote
- Mud Caves
- New Mexico
- Ouhans
- paleocollapse
- Phangnga Bay
- polje
- Popo Agie Wilderness
- pyrite
- quartzite
- San Diego
- septic tank
- Serbia
- sinkhole
- Slovene language
- Slovenia
- snail
- soil
- Solvation
- Speleology
- speleothems
- spring (hydrosphere)
- Subterranean river
- sulfide
- sulfuric acid
- Thermokarst
- tor (geography)
- tropics
- tufa
- Turlough (lake)
- USA
- Victoria (Australia)
- Vietnam
- Water pollution
- water well
- waterfall
- weathering
Karst
Releases by year: 2008
Album releases
Karst (feat. Abstral Compost) (Released 2008)
- Amnésie des âmes
- L'Intérieur des murs
- Pyrite soufre or cœur
- Marée
- Le Coincoin de la pièpièce
- Épidémie
- Madame, il pleut sur ma solitude
Vision of Insane Hope
- In Turn All Fear
- Mancanical
- Profit Sea
- Hear Not
- Crusaders and Zealots
- Blind Walk
- Rhythms of Sane
- Nothing News
- Over Ruled
- Vision of Insane Hope

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- Abîme
- acid
- aquifer
- Arroyo Tapiado
- Australia
- bedrock
- bioerosion
- calcium carbonate
- California
- carbon dioxide
- carbonate rock
- carbonic acid
- cave
- cenote
- Croatian language
- Dent de Crolles
- Discus macclintocki
- dolomite
- dolostone
- Earth's atmosphere
- erosion
- foibe
- France
- Frasassi Caves
- geographer
- German language
- Glaciokarst
- granite
- Great Blue Hole
- Groundwater
- gypsum
- Halong Bay
- ice age
- Indo-European
- Iowa
- Italy
- Jovan Cvijić
- Jura mountains
- karst fenster
- Kras
- Labertouche Cave
- landfill
- lava
- Lechuguilla Cave
- Lighthouse Reef
- limestone
- limestone pavement
- List of landforms
- Ljubljanica
- Loue
- Lozère
- makatea
- mogote
- Mud Caves
- New Mexico
- Ouhans
- paleocollapse
- Phangnga Bay
- polje
- Popo Agie Wilderness
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Karst topography is a geologic formation shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite, but has also been documented for weathering resistant rocks like quartzite given the right conditions.
Due to subterranean drainage, there may be very limited surface water, even to the absence of all rivers and lakes. Many karst regions display distinctive surface features, with sinkholes or dolines being the most common. However, distinctive karst surface features may be completely absent where the soluble rock is mantled, such as by glacial debris, or confined by a superimposed non-soluble rock strata. Some karst regions include thousands of caves, even though evidence of caves that are big enough for human exploration is not a required characteristic of karst.
Background
Karst topography is characterized by subterranean limestone caverns, carved by groundwater. The geographer Jovan Cvijić (1865–1927) was born in western Serbia and studied widely in the Dinaric Kras region. His publication of Das Karstphänomen (1893) established that rock dissolution was the key process and that it created most types of dolines, "the diagnostic karst landforms". The Dinaric Kras thus became the type area for dissolutional landforms and aquifers; the regional name kras, Germanicised as "karst", is now applied to modern and paleo-dissolutional phenomena worldwide. Cvijić related the complex behaviour of karstic aquifers to development of solutional conduit networks and linked it to a cycle of landform evolution. Cvijić defined two main types of karstic area, holokarst, wholly developed, as in the Dinaric region along the eastern Adriatic and deeper inland in the Balkan Peninsula and merokarst, imperfectly developed with some karstic forms, as in eastern Serbia. Cvijić is recognized as "the father of karst geomorphology".The international community has settled on karst, the German name for Kras, a region in Slovenia partially extending into Italy, where it is called "Carso" and where the first scientific research of a karst topography was made. The name has an Indo-European origin (from karra meaning "stone"), and in antiquity it was called "Carusardius" in Latin. The Slovene form grast is attested since 1177, and the Croatian kras since 1230.. "Krš" – "Krsh" meaning in Croatian and in Serbian "barren land" which is typical feature in the Northern Dinaric limestone mountains could also be an origin to the word Karst.
Chemistry
Karst landforms are generally the result of mildly acidic water acting on weakly soluble bedrock such as limestone or dolostone. The mildly acidic water begins to dissolve the surface along fractures or bedding planes in the limestone bedrock. Over time, these fractures enlarge as the bedrock continues to dissolve. Openings in the rock increase in size, and an underground drainage system begins to develop, allowing more water to pass through the area, and accelerating the formation of underground karst features.
Main dissolution mechanism: carbonic acid
The carbonic acid that causes these features is formed as rain passes through the atmosphere picking up CO2, which dissolves in the water. Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through soil that can provide much more CO2 to form a weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves calcium carbonate. The sequence of reactions involved in the limestone dissolution are the following::H2O + CO2 → H2CO3 :CaCO3 → Ca2+ + CO32– :CO32– + H2CO3 → 2 HCO3– :CaCO3 + H2CO3 → Ca2+ + 2 HCO3–
This is the main dissolution mechanism of calcium carbonate in limestone.
Secondary dissolution mechanism: sulfide oxidation
However, in particular and very rare conditions such as these encountered in the past in Lechuguilla Cave in New Mexico (and more recently in the Frasassi Caves in Italy), other mechanisms may also play a role. The oxidation of sulfides leading to the formation of sulfuric acid can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. As O2-rich surface waters seep into deep anoxic karst systems it brings oxygen which reacts with sulfide present in the system (pyrite or H2S) to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate causing an increased erosion within the limestone formation. This can be summarized by the cascade of the following reactions::H2S + 2 O2 → H2SO4 (sulfide oxidation) :H2SO4 + 2 H2O → SO42– + 2 H3O+ (sulfuric acid dissociation) :CaCO3 + 2 H3O+ → Ca2+ + H2CO3 + 2 H2O (calcium carbonate dissolution)
:CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2CO3 (global reaction leading to calcium sulfate) :CaSO4 + 2 H2O → CaSO4 · 2 H2O (hydration and gypsum formation)
As a result of this reaction the mineral gypsum forms.
Morphology
The karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large or small scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include flutes, runnels, clints and grikes, collectively called karren or lapiez. Medium-sized surface features may include sinkholes or cenotes (closed basins), vertical shafts, foibe (inverted funnel shaped sinkholes), disappearing streams, and reappearing springs. Large-scale features may include limestone pavements, poljes and blind valleys. Mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers, or haystack/eggbox landscapes. Beneath the surface, complex underground drainage systems (such as karst aquifers) and extensive caves and cavern systems may form.Erosion along limestone shores, notably in the tropics, produces karst topography that includes a sharp makatea surface above the normal reach of the sea and undercuts that are mostly the result of biological activity or bioerosion at or a little above mean sea level. Some of the most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailand's Phangnga Bay and Halong Bay in Vietnam.
Calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce tufa terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time. In caves, a variety of features collectively called speleothems are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals.
Hydrology
Farming in karst areas must take into account the lack of surface water. The soils may be fertile enough, and rainfall may be adequate, but rainwater quickly moves through the crevices into the ground, sometimes leaving the surface soil parched between rains.
A karst fenster is where an underground stream emerges onto the surface between layers of rock, cascades some feet, and then disappears back down, often into a sinkhole. Rivers in karst areas may disappear underground a number of times and spring up again in different places, usually under a different name (like Ljubljanica, the river of seven names). An example of this is the Popo Agie River in Fremont County, Wyoming. At a site simply named "The Sinks" in Sinks Canyon State Park, the river flows into a cave in a formation known as the Madison Limestone, and then rises again a half-mile down the canyon in a placid pool. A Turlach is a unique type of seasonal lake found in Irish karst areas which are formed through the annual welling-up of water from the underground water system.
Water supplies from wells in karst topography may be unsafe, as the water may have run unimpeded from a sinkhole in a cattle pasture, through a cave and to the well, bypassing the normal filtering that occurs in a porous aquifer. Karst formations are cavernous and therefore have high rates of permeability, resulting in reduced opportunity for contaminants to be filtered out.
Groundwater in karst areas is just as easily polluted as surface streams. Sinkholes have often been used as farmstead or community trash dumps. Overloaded or malfunctioning septic tanks in karst landscapes may dump raw sewage directly into underground channels.
The karst topography itself also poses difficulties for human inhabitants. Sinkholes can develop gradually as surface openings enlarge, but quite often progressive erosion is unseen and the roof of an underground cavern suddenly collapses. Such events have swallowed homes, cattle, cars, and farm machinery.
The Driftless Area National Wildlife Refuge in Iowa protects Discus macclintocki, a species of ice age snail surviving in air chilled by flowing over buried karst ice formations.
Pseudokarst
Pseudokarsts are similar in form or appearance to karst features, but are created by different mechanisms. Examples include lava caves and granite tors—for example, Labertouche Cave in Victoria, Australia and paleocollapse features.
Notable karst areas
Notable pseudokarst areas
North America
Belize
United States
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Category:Karst caves Category:Landforms Category:Cave geology Category:Geomorphology
az:Karst bg:Карст ca:Relleu càrstic cs:Kras da:Karst de:Karst et:Karst es:Karst eo:Karsto eu:Karst fr:Karst ko:카르스트 지형 hr:Krš id:Karst is:Karst it:Carsismo he:קארסט ka:კარსტი kk:Карст lv:Karsta process lt:Karstas (reiškinys) hu:Karszt nl:Karst (geografie) ja:カルスト地形 no:Karst-topografi pl:Kras (geologia) pt:Carste ro:Carst ru:Карст simple:Karst sk:Kras sl:Kras sr:Крас (геоморфологија) sh:Kras fi:Karstimaa sv:Karst th:คาสต์ tr:Karst uk:Карст vi:Karst zh:喀斯特地形This text is licensed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-SA License. This text was originally published on Wikipedia and was developed by the Wikipedia community.