Name	José Doroteo Arango Arámbula
Birth date	5 June 1878
Death date	July 20, 1923
Birth place	La Coyotada, San Juan del Río, Durango, Mexico
Death place	Parral, Chihuahua, Mexico
Nickname	Francisco VillaPancho Villa''''El Centauro del Norte'' (The Centaur of the North)
Allegiance	Mexico (''antireeleccionista'' revolutionary forces)
Battles	Mexican Revolution First Battle of Agua Prieta Battle of Nogales Battle of Ciudad Juarez Siege of Nogales Battle of Columbus
Rank	General
Commands	División del Norte}}

José Doroteo Arango Arámbula (5 June 1878 – 20 July 1923) – better known by his pseudonym Francisco Villa or its hypocorism Pancho Villa – was one of the most prominent Mexican Revolutionary generals.

As commander of the ''División del Norte'' (Division of the North), he was the veritable ''caudillo'' of the Northern Mexican state of Chihuahua which, given its size, mineral wealth, and proximity to the United States of America, provided him with extensive resources. Villa was also provisional Governor of Chihuahua in 1913 and 1914. Although he was prevented from being accepted into the "panteón" of national heroes until some 20 years after his death, today his memory is honored by Mexicans, U.S. citizens, and many people around the world. In addition, numerous streets and neighborhoods in Mexico are named in his honor.

Villa and his supporters seized hacienda land for distribution to peasants and soldiers. He robbed and commandeered trains, and, like the other revolutionary generals, printed fiat money to pay for his cause. Villa's men and supporters became known as ''Villistas'' during the revolution from 1910 to roughly 1920.

Villa's dominance in northern Mexico was broken in 1915 through a series of defeats he suffered at Celaya and Agua Prieta at the hands of Álvaro Obregón and Plutarco Elías Calles. After Villa's famous raid on Columbus in 1916, US Army General John J. Pershing tried unsuccessfully to capture Villa in a nine-month pursuit that ended when Pershing was called back as the United States entry into World War I was assured. Villa retired in 1920 and was given a large estate which he turned into a "military colony" for his former soldiers. In 1923, he decided to re-involve himself in Mexican politics and as a result was assassinated, most likely on the orders of Obregón.

Early life

Villa was born as Jose Doroteo Arango Arambula to poor peasants Agustín Arango and Micaela Arambula at the Rancho de la Coyotada, which was located in San Juan del Rio and was one of the largest haciendas in the state of Durango. Doroteo was the oldest of five children and as such helped his mother care for his siblings after Agustín died. As a child, Doroteo received some education from a local church-run school, but quit school and became a sharecropper after his father died.

According to his own later statements, at the age of sixteen, Doroteo moved to Chihuahua, but swiftly returned to Durango to track down Agustín Lopez Negrete, the owner of the hacienda who had raped Doroteo's sister. However, historians have questioned the veracity of this story. After he shot and killed Negrete, Doroteo stole a horse and fled to the Sierra Madre Occidental region in Durango, where he roamed the hills as a bandit. Eventually, he became a member of an outlaw "super group" headed by Ignacio Parra, one of the most famous bandits of Durango at the time. As a bandit he went by the name "Orango." After crushing the Orozco rebellion, Victoriano Huerta, with the federal army he commanded, held the majority of military power in Mexico. Huerta saw an opportunity to make himself the dictator of Mexico, and he began to conspire with men such as Bernardo Reyes, Félix Díaz (nephew of Porfirio Díaz), and the American ambassador Henry Lane Wilson, which resulted in ''La decena trágica'' (the "Ten Tragic Days") and the assassination of President Madero.

After Madero's murder, Huerta proclaimed himself provisional president. Venustiano Carranza then proclaimed the Plan of Guadalupe to oust Huerta as an unconstitutional usurper. Despite his strong dislike of Carranza, Villa alligned with him afterwards to overthrow Huerta; Between Huerta and Carranza, Carranza would be regarded as only the lesser of two evils and would also be regarded as the butt of Villa's jokes and pranks. The politicians and generals (who included Pablo González, Álvaro Obregón, Emiliano Zapata and Villa) who supported Carranza's plan were collectively styled the ''Ejército Constitucionalista de México'' (Constitutionalist Army of Mexico), the ''constitucionalista'' adjective was added to stress the point that Huerta had not obtained power through methods prescribed by Mexico's Constitution of 1857.

Operating in conjunction with Carranza's Constitutionalist Army of Mexico, Villa operated in the northern provinces. Villa's hatred of Huerta became more personal and intense after 7 March 1913, when Huerta ordered the murder of Villa's dear friend political mentor, Abraham González, who had worked with Madero and Villa since 1910. González had been one of Madero's political advisors. He recruited Francisco Villa in 1910 to support Madero with the Plan de San Luis which started the first part of the Mexican Revolution with the armed movement of 20 November 1910. The Plan de San Luis was conceived to force Dictator Porfirio Diaz (Mexican president for 33 years) to leave the presidency and allow for a Mexican democracy. Villa later recovered González's remains and gave his friend a proper funeral in Chihuahua.

Villa joined the rebellion against Huerta, entering the valley of the Río Bravo del Norte (Rio Grande) into Ciudad Juárez initially with a mere 8 men, 2 pounds of coffee, 2 pounds of sugar, and 500 rounds of rifle ammunition. The new United States president, Woodrow Wilson, dismissed Ambassador Wilson, and began to support Carranza's cause. Villa's remarkable generalship and recruiting appeal, combined with ingenious fundraising methods to support his rebellion, were a key factor in forcing Huerta from office a little over a year later, on 15 July 1914.

This was the time of Villa's greatest fame and success. He recruited soldiers and able subordinates (both Mexican and mercenary) such as Felipe Ángeles, Manuel Chao, Sam Dreben and Ivor Thord-Gray, and raised money using methods such as forced assessments on hostile hacienda owners, and train robberies. In one notable escapade, he held 122 bars of silver ingot from a train robbery (and a Wells Fargo employee) hostage and forced Wells Fargo to help him sell the bars for cash. A rapid, hard-fought series of victories at Ciudad Juárez, Tierra Blanca, Chihuahua and Ojinaga followed. The well known American journalist and fiction writer Ambrose Bierce, then in his seventies, accompanied Villa's army during this period and witnessed the battle of Tierra Blanca. Bierce vanished while still with Villa's army in or after December 1913. Oral accounts of his execution by firing squad were never verified.

Governor of Chihuahua

Against the wishes of Carranza, who wanted to name Manuel Chao as the provisional governor of Chihuahua, Villa's was named as the provisional governor of the state of Chihuahua in 1913, after the local military commanders in the region elected him. As Governor of Chihuahua, Villa recruited more experienced generals, such as Toribio Ortega, Porfirio Talamantes and Calixto Contreas, in his military staff and achieved more success than ever. Following his appointment as Governor of Chihuahua, Villa's secretary Perez Rul divided his army into two groups, one led by Ortega, Contreras and Orestes Pereyra and the other led by Talamantes and Contreras' deputy Severianco Ceniceros.

According to some of the references, Villa considered Tierra Blanca his most spectacular victory, though Talamantes died while fighting the the battle as well. Villa's war tactics were studied by the United States Army and a contract with Hollywood was made. Hollywood would be allowed to film Villa's movements and 50% of the profit would be paid to Villa to support the Revolution.

As governor of Chihuahua, Villa raised more money for a drive to the south by printing his own currency. He decreed his paper money to be traded and accepted at par with gold Mexican pesos, then forced the wealthy to give loans that would allow him to pay salaries to the army as well as food and clothes. He also took some of the land owned by the ''hacendados'' (owners of the ''haciendas'') to give it to the widows and family of dead revolutionaries. The forced loans would also support the war machinery of the Mexican Revolution. He also confiscated gold from specific banks, in the case of the Banco Minero, by holding hostage a member of the bank's owning family, the extremely wealthy Terrazas clan, until the location of the bank's hidden gold was revealed.

Villa's political stature at that time was so high that banks in El Paso, Texas, accepted his paper pesos at face value. His generalship drew enough admiration from the U.S. military that he and Álvaro Obregón were invited to Fort Bliss to meet Brigadier General John J. Pershing. Returning to Mexico, Villa gathered supplies for a drive to the south.

The new pile of money was used to purchase draft animals, cavalry horses, arms, ammunition, mobile hospital facilities (railroad cars and horse ambulances staffed with Mexican and foreign volunteer doctors, known as ''Servicio sanitario''), and food, as well as to rebuild the railroad south of Chihuahua City. As governor, he also recruited fighters from Chihuahua and Durango and became leader of a large army known as the ''The Division del Norte (Division of the North)'', the most powerful and feared military unit in all of Mexico. The rebuilt railroad transported Villa's troops and artillery south, where he defeated Federal forces at Gómez Palacio, Torreón, and eventually at the heart of Huerta's regime in Zacatecas. Of all of Villa's generals, Felipe Angeles was considered to be his best one.

Carranza tries to halt the Villa advance, the fall of Zacatecas

After Villa successfully captured Torreón, Carranza issued a puzzling order for Villa to break off action south of Torreón and instead ordered him to divert to attack Saltillo, and threatened to cut off Villa's coal supply if he did not comply. Coal was needed for railroad locomotives to pull trains transporting soldiers and supplies. This was widely seen as an attempt by Carranza to divert Villa from a direct assault on Mexico City, so as to allow Carranza's forces under Álvaro Obregón, driving in from the west via Guadalajara, to take the capital first. This was an expensive and disruptive diversion for the ''División del Norte'', since Villa's enlisted men were paid the then enormous sum of a peso per day, and each day of delay cost thousands of pesos. Villa did attack Saltillo as ordered, winning that battle.

Villa, disgusted by what he saw as egoism, complied with Carranza's order to divert his attacks towards Saltillo, but then offered his resignation after capturing the city. Felipe Ángeles and the rest of Villa's staff officers argued for Villa to withdraw his resignation, defy Carranza's orders, and proceed to attack Zacatecas, a strategic mountainous city that was heavily defended by Federal troops and considered nearly impregnable. Zacatecas was the source of much of Mexico's silver, and thus a supply of funds for whoever held it. Victory in Zacatecas would mean that Huerta's chances of holding the remainder of the country would be slim. Villa accepted his staff's advice, cancelled his resignation, and the ''División del Norte'' defied Carranza and attacked Zacatecas. Attacking up steep slopes, the ''División del Norte'' defeated the Federals in the ''Toma de Zacatecas'' (Taking of Zacatecas), the single bloodiest battle of the Revolution, with the military forces counting approximately 7,000 dead and 5,000 wounded, and unknown numbers of civilian casualties. (A memorial to and museum of the ''Toma de Zacatecas'' is on the ''Cerro de la Bufa'', one of the key defense points in the battle of Zacatecas. Tourists use a ''teleférico'' (aerial tramway) to reach it, owing to the steep approaches. From the top, tourists may appreciate the difficulties Villa's troops had trying to dislodge Federal troops from the peak.) The loss of Zacatecas in June 1914 broke the back of the Huerta regime, and Huerta left for exile on 14 July 1914.

However, in August 1914, Carranza and his army entered Mexico City ahead of Villa. Villa despised Carranza and saw him as another Porfirio Diaz-like dictator. Nevertheless, Villa, who did not want to be named President of Mexico, accepted Carranza as the Chief of the Revolution. The revolutionary caudillos convened a National Convention, and conducted a series of meetings in Aguascalientes. This National Convention set rules for Mexico's path towards democracy. None of the armed revolutionaries were allowed to be nominated for government positions. They chose an interim president, Eulalio Gutierrez. Emiliano Zapata, a military general from southern Mexico, and Pancho Villa met at the convention. Zapata was sympathetic to Villa's views of Carranza and told Villa he feared Carranza's intentions were those of a dictator and not of a democratic president. True to Zapata's prediction, Carranza decided to oppose the agreements of the National Convention, setting off a civil war. Fearing that Carranza was imposing a dictatorship, Villa and Zapata broke with him.

Battling Carranza

Following the Convention, Carranza was deposed as President and fled to Veracruz. Following Carranza's departure, Villa and Zapata occupied Mexico City. Although Villa had a more formidable army, Carranza's general Alvadro Obregon was a better tactician. With Obergon's help, Carranza was able to use the Mexican press to portray Villa as a sociopathic bandit. In late 1914, one of Villa's top generals, Toribio Ortega died of typhus. In 1915, Villa was forced to abandon the capital after a number of incidents involving his troops. This helped pave the way for the return of Carranza and his followers.

To combat Villa, Carranza sent his ablest general, Álvaro Obregón north. Meeting at the Battle of Celaya, a battle fought between April 6 and April 15, 1915, Villa was badly defeated suffering 4,000 killed and 6,000 captured. Obergon would encounter Villa again at the Battle of Trinidad, which was fought between April 29 and June 5, 1915, where Villa suffered another huge loss. In October of 1915, Villa crossed into Sonora, the main stronghold of Obergon and Carranza's armies, where hoped to crush Carranza's regime. Carranza had reinforced Sonora, however, and Villa was badly defeated. Rodolfo Fierro, his most loyal officer and cruel hatchet man, was killed while Villa's army was crossing into Sonora as well.

After losing the Battle of Agua Prieta in Sonora, an overwheming number of Villa's men in the ''Division del Norte'' were killed and 1,500 of the army's surviving members soon turned on him and accepted an amnesty offer from Carranza. In November of 1915, Carranza's forces had captured and executed Contreras, Pereyra and Pereyra's son. Severianco Ceniceros also accepted amnesty from Carranza and turned on Villa as well. Although Villa's secretary Perez Rul also broke with Villa, he refused to become a supporter of Carranza.

Only 200 men in Villa's army would remain loyal to him and he was soon forced to retreat back into the mountains of Chihuahua. However, Villa and his men were determined to keep fighting Carranza's forces. Villa's position was further weakened by the United States' refusal to sell him weapons. By the end of 1915, Villa was on the run and the United States Government recognized Carranza.

Split with the United States and the Punitive Expedition

After years of public and documented support for Villa's fight, the United States, following the diplomatic policies of Woodrow Wilson, who believed that supporting Carranza was the best way to expedite establishment of a stable Mexican government, refused to allow more arms to be supplied to Villa's army, and allowed Carranza's troops to be relocated over U.S. railroads. Villa felt betrayed by the Americans. He was further enraged by Obregón's use of searchlights, powered by American electricity, to help repel a ''Villista'' night attack on the border town of Agua Prieta, Sonora, on 1 November 1915. In January 1916, a group of ''Villistas'' attacked a train on the Mexico North Western Railway, near Santa Isabel, Chihuahua, and killed several American employees of the ASARCO company. The passengers included eighteen Americans, fifteen of whom worked for American Smelting and Refining Company. There was only one survivor, who gave the details to the press. Villa admitted to ordering the attack, but denied that he had authorized the shedding of American blood.

After meeting with a Mexican mayor named Juan Muñoz, Villa recruited more men into his guerrilla militia and now had 400 men under his command. Villa then met with his Lieutenants Martin Lopez, Pablo Lopez, Francisco Beltran, Candelario Cervantes and commissioned an additional 100 men to the command of Joaquin Alvarez, Bernabe Cifuentes and Ernesto Rios; Pablo Lopez and Cervantes were later killed in the early part of 1916. Villa and his 500 guerrillas then started planning an attack on US soil.

Cross-border attack on New Mexico

On 9 March 1916, General Villa ordered nearly 100 Mexican members of his revolutionary group to make a cross-border attack against Columbus, New Mexico. The raid was conducted because of the U.S. government's official recognition of the Carranza regime and for the loss of lives in battle due to defective bullets purchased from the United States. They attacked a detachment of the 13th Cavalry Regiment (United States), burned the town and seized 100 horses and mules and other military supplies. 18 Americans and about 80 Villistas were killed. There are other attacks in US territory that have been said to be done by Villa, however, none of these attacks were ever confirmed to be performed by Villistas. These unconfirmed attacks are: 1) On 15 May, it is claimed that they attacked Glenn Spring, Texas, killing a civilian and wounding three American soldiers; 2) on 15 June, bandits killed four soldiers at San Ygnacio, Texas; 3) on 31 July, one American soldier and a U.S. customs inspector were killed. Villa's raid on Columbus would also mark the first time any foreign armed force conducted an attack on American soil since the War of 1812.

Punitive Expedition

In response to Villa's raid on Columbus, President Wilson dispatched General John Pershing and 10,000 men to Mexico to capture Villa. Employing aircraft and trucks for the first time, the US Army chased Villa until January of 1917. The search for Villa would be unsucessful. However, some of Villa's senior commanders-Colonel Candelario Cervantes, General Francisco Beltran, Beltran's son and Villa's second-in-command Julio Cardenas- and a total of 190 of his men were killed during the expedition.

The Mexican population were against US troops in Mexican territories. There were several demonstrations of their disagreement with the Punitive Expedition and that counted towards the failure of that expedition. During the course of the expedition, one of Villa's top generals, Pablo Lopez, was captured by Carranza's forces and was executed on June 13, 1916.

Villa's battles and military actions

First Battle of Ciudad Juárez (1911 won)

Second Battle of Ciudad Juarez (1913 won)

Battle of Tierra Blanca (1913 won)

Battle of Chihuahua (1913 won)

Battle of Ojinaga (1913 won)

First Battle of Torreón (1914 won)

Battle of Gómez Palacio (1914 won)

Battle of Saltillo (1914 won)

Battle of Zacatecas (1914 won)

Siege of Nogales (1915 lost)

Battle of Celaya (1915 lost)

Battle of Trinidad (1915 lost)

Battle of Agua Prieta (1915 lost)

Battle of Columbus (1916)

German involvement in Villa's later campaigns

Before the Villa-Carranza irregular forces had left to the mountains in 1915, there is no credible evidence that Villa co-operated with or accepted any help from the German government or agents. Villa was supplied arms from the USA, employed international (Americans included) mercenaries and doctors, was portrayed as a hero in the US media, made business arrangements with Hollywood, and did not object to the 1914 US naval occupation of Veracruz. Villa's observation was that the occupation merely hurt Huerta. Villa opposed the armed participation of the United States in Mexico, but he did not act against the Veracruz occupation in order to maintain the connections in the United States necessary to buy bullets and other supplies. The German consul in Torreón did make entreaties to Villa, offering him arms and money to occupy the port and oil fields of Tampico to enable German ships to dock there, but the offer was rejected by Villa.

German agents did attempt to interfere, unsuccessfully, in the Mexican Revolution. Germans attempted to plot with Victoriano Huerta to assist him to retake the country, and in the infamous Zimmermann Telegram to the Mexican government, proposed an alliance with the government of Venustiano Carranza.

There were documented contacts between Villa and the Germans, after Villa's split with the Constitutionalists. Principally this was in the person of Felix A. Sommerfeld (noted in Katz's book), who allegedly, in 1915, funneled $340,000 of German money to the Western Cartridge Company to purchase ammunition. However, the actions of Sommerfeld indicate he was likely acting in his own self-interest (he acted as a double agent for Carranza). Villa's actions were hardly that of a German catspaw; rather, it appears that Villa only resorted to German assistance after other sources of money and arms were cut off.

At the time of Villa's attack on Columbus, New Mexico in 1916, Villa's military power had been marginalized (he was repulsed at Columbus by a small cavalry detachment, albeit after doing a lot of damage), his theater of operations was mainly limited to western Chihuahua, he was ''persona non grata'' with Mexico's ruling Carranza constitutionalists, and the subject of an embargo by the United States; so communication or further shipments of arms between the Germans and Villa would have been difficult.

A plausible explanation of any Villa-German contacts after 1915 would be that they were a futile extension of increasingly desperate German diplomatic efforts and ''Villista'' pipe dreams of victory as progress of their respective wars bogged down. Villa effectively did not have anything useful to offer in exchange for German help at that point.

When weighing claims of Villa conspiring with Germans, one should take into account that at the time, portraying Villa as a German sympathizer served the propaganda ends of both Carranza and Wilson.

The use of Mauser rifles and carbines by Villa's forces does not necessarily indicate any German connection. These weapons were widely used by all parties in the Mexican Revolution, Mauser longarms being enormously popular. They were standard issue in the Mexican Army, which had begun adopting 7 mm Mauser system arms as early as 1895.

Personal Life

On May 29 1911, Villa married María Luz Corral. a woman whom he met when he and his army rode into San Andres and asked for monetary contributions. Together, Villa and his wife had only one child, a daughter who died within a few years after birth. While Villa had engaged in several bogus marriage ceremonies with many of his mistresses, Corral was his only legal wife. Corral would also take care of the children Villa fathered through his various extramaritial affairs. At the time of his death, Corral and five different women each claimed to be his widow. While Villa still remained active, Carranza shifted his focus to dealing with the more dangerous threat posed by Zapata in the south. By the end of 1915, Villa no longer had an army and had gone back to being a guerrilla leader in the mountains of Chihuahua. Villa's last major military action would be a raid against Ciudad Juarez in 1919. Following the raid, Villa would suffer yet another major blow after Felipe Angeles, who had returned to Mexico in 1918 after living in exile for three years as a dairy farmer in Texas, left Villa and his now small militia. Angeles was also later captured by Carranza's forces and was executed on November 26, 1919.

After losing his final battle at Ciudad Juarez, Villa agreed that he would cease fighting if it were made worth his while. However, the siege failed and Villa's new second-in-command, his longtime lieutenant Martín López, was killed during the fighting.

On May 21, 1920, a break for Villa came when Carranza, along as his top advisors and supporters, was assassinated by supporters of Álvaro Obregón. With his archnemesis dead, Villa was now ready to negotiate a peace settlement and retire. On July 22, 1920, Villa was finally able to send a telegram to Mexican intern President Adolfo de la Huerta, which stated that he recognized Huerta's presidency and requested amnesty. Six days later, Adolfo de la Huerta met with Villa successfully negotiated a peace settlement.

In exchange for his retirement, Villa was given a 25,000 acre hacienda in Canutillo, just outside of Hidalgo del Parral, Chihuahua, by the national government. This was in addition to the Quinta Luz estate that he owned with his wife, María Luz Corral de Villa, in Chihuahua, Chihuahua. The last remaining 200 guerrillas and veterans of Villa's milita who still maintained a loyalty to him would reside with him in his new hacienda as well and the Mexican government also granted them a pension that totalled 500,000 gold pesos. The 50 guerrillas who still remained in Villa's small calvary would also be allowed to serve as Villa's personal bodyguards.

On Friday, 20 July 1923, Villa was killed while visiting Parral. Usually accompanied by his entourage of ''Dorados'' (his bodyguards) Pancho Villa frequently made trips from his ranch to Parral for banking and other errands. This day, however, Villa had gone into the town without them, taking only a few associates with him. He went to pick up a consignment of gold from the local bank with which to pay his Canutillo ranch staff. While driving back through the city in his black 1919 Dodge roadster, Villa passed by a school and a pumpkinseed vendor ran toward Villa's car and shouted ''Viva Villa!'' – a signal for a group of seven riflemen who then appeared in the middle of the road and fired over 40 shots into the automobile. In the fusillade of shots, Villa was hit by nine bullets in his head and upper chest, killing him instantly. He was found in the driver seat of the car, with one hand reaching for his gun.

One of Villa's bodyguards, Ramon Contreras, was also badly wounded but managed to kill at least one of the assassins before he himself managed to escape; he would be the only person who accompanied Villa during this assassination who managed to survive. Two other bodyguards, Claro Huertado and Villa's main personal bodyguard Rafael Madreno, who were with him also died,, who served as his chauffeur. Villa is sometimes reported to have died saying: "Don't let it end like this. Tell them I said something." However, there is no contemporary evidence he survived his shooting even momentarily, and his biographer, Katz, confirms that Villa died instantly; Time Magazine also reported in 1951 that both Villa and one his aides were killed instantly. The next day, Villa's funeral was held and thousands of his grieving supporters in Parral followed his casket to his burial site while Villa's men and his closest friends remained at the haceinda in the Canitullo armed and ready for an attack by the government troops. The six surviving assassins hide out in the desert and were soon captured,

Shortly after his death, two theories emerged about why he was killed. In 1914, Jose de la Luz Herrera and his family betrayed Villa and joined Carranza. Villa then made it a goal to exterminate the Herrera clan.

In 1915, Herrera's son Maclovio was accidently killed by friendly fire while fighting Villa on the outskirts of Nuevo Larado, Tamaulipas. Another one Herrera's sons, General Luis Herrera, was captured in a hotel by Villa's soldiers after the Battle of Torreon in 1916 and was executed. In 1919, Jose de la Luz Herrera and his two sons Zeferino and Melchor, along with a number of the men their militia, were captured by Villa's soldiers after an unsuccessful on Villa's base in Parral and were executed; Villa, however, suprisingly pardoned and released the remaining prisoners who were captured. After Villa retired, Jesus Herrera was determined to use his family's wealth to seek revenge on Villa. In 1922, a secret war began between Herrera and Villa and lasted over a year. According to Villa, Herrera had bribed a number of men, including some of his own former generals, to kill him and was unsuccessful.

The other theory that emerged was that Villa was killed for political reasons. most historians attribute Villa's death to a well planned conspiracy, most likely initiated by Plutarco Elías Calles and Joaquin Amaro with at least tacit approval of the then president of Mexico, Obregon. At the time, a state legislator from Durango, Jesus Salas Barraza, who Villa once whipped during a quarrel over a woman, claimed sole responsibility for the plot. Barraza admitted that he told his friend Gabriel Chavez, who worked as a dealer for General Motors, that he would kill Villa if he were paid 50,000 pesos. Chavez, who wasn't wealthy and didn't have 50,000 pesos on hand, then collected money from enemies of Villa and managed to collect a total of 100,000 pesos for Barraza and his other co-conspirators. Barraza also admitted that he and his co-conspirators watched Villa's daily car-rides and paid the pumpkinseed vendor at the scene of Villa's assassination to shout "Viva Villa!" either once if Villa was sitting in the front part of the car or twice if he was sitting in the back.

Despite the that he did not want to have a sitting politician arrested, Obregon gave into the people's demands and had Barraza arrested. Barraza was originally sentenced to 20 years in prison, The following month, however, Barraza's sentence was commuted to three months by the Governor of Chihuahua; Barraza eventually became a colonel in the Mexican Army. In a letter to the governor of Durango, Jesus Castro, Barraza agreed to be the "fall guy" and the same arrangement is mentioned in letters exchanged between Castro and Amaro. Others involved in the conspiracy were Felix Lara, the commander of federal troops in Parral, who was paid 50,000 pesos by Calles to remove his soldiers and policemen from the town on the day of the assassination, and Meliton Lozoya, the former owner of Villa's hacienda whom Villa was demanding pay back funds he had embezzled. It was Lozoya who planned the details of the assassination and found the men who carried it out. It was reported that before Barraza died of a stroke in his Mexico City home in 1951, his last words were "I'm not a murderer. I rid humanity of a monster."

Villa's purported death mask was hidden at the Radford School in El Paso, Texas, until the 1970s, when it was sent to the Historical Museum of the Mexican Revolution in Chihuahua; other museums have ceramic and bronze representations that do not match this mask.

Villa was buried in the city cemetery of Parral, Chihuahua, Tombs for Villa exist in Chihuahua and Mexico City.

Period newsreel showing views of the assassination location in Hidalgo del Parral, Chihuahua, news reporters at the scene, and Villa's bullet riddled corpse and auto still exist to this day. Villa's skull was stolen from his grave in 1926.

Villa's last living son, Ernesto Nava, died in Castro Valley, California, at the age of 94, on 31 December 2009. Nava appeared yearly in festival events in his hometown of Durango, Mexico, enjoying celebrity status until he became too weak to attend.

In films, video, and television

thumb|right|Monument to Pancho Villa in Bufa Zacatecas mountain rangeVilla appeared as himself in films in 1912, 1913, 1914 and 1916:

''Life of Villa'' (1912)

''With General Pancho Villa in Mexico'' (1913, unconfirmed)

''The Life of General Villa'' (1914)

''Following the Flag in Mexico'' (1916)

The 1934 biopic ''Viva Villa!'' was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture. Actors that have portrayed Villa include:

Raoul Walsh (1912, 1914) ''The Life of General Villa''

Wallace Beery (1917) ''Patria''

George Humbert (1918) ''Why America Will Win''

Wallace Beery (1934) ''Viva Villa!'', with Phillip Cooper (Pancho Villa as a boy)

Juan F. Triana (1935) ''El Tesoro de Pancho Villa''

Domingo Soler (1936) ''¡Vámonos con Pancho Villa!''

Maurice Black (1937) ''Under Strange Flags''

Leo Carrillo (1949) ''Pancho Villa Returns''

Pedro Armendáriz (1950, 1957, 1960 twice)

Alan Reed (1952) ''Viva Zapata!''

Victor Alcocer (1955) ''El siete leguas''

Rodolfo Hoyos, Jr. (1958) ''Villa!!''

Rafael Campos (1959) ''Have Gun Will Travel, Season 3-Episode 6 (Pancho)''

José Elías Moreno (1967) ''El Centauro Pancho Villa''

Ricardo Palacios (1967) ''Los Siete de Pancho Villa''

Yul Brynner (1968) ''Villa Rides''

Telly Savalas (1971) ''Pancho Villa''!

Heraclio Zepeda (1973) ''Reed, México insurgente''

Antonio Aguilar (1974) ''La Muerte de Pancho Villa''

Héctor Elizondo (1976) ''Wanted: The Sundance Woman'' (TV)

Freddy Fender (1977) ''She Came to the Valley''

José Villamor (1980) ''Viva México'' (TV)

Jorge Reynoso (1982) ''Red Bells: Mexico in Flames''

Gaithor Brownne (1985) ''Blood Church''

Guillermo Gil (1987) ''Senda de Gloria'' (TV series)

Pedro Armendáriz, Jr. (1989) ''Old Gringo''

Mike Moroff (1992) ''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'', ''Young Indiana Jones and the Curse of the Jackal'', "Mexico, March 1916", ''The Adventures of Young Indiana Jones: Spring Break Adventure''

Antonio Aguilar (1993) ''La sangre de un valiente''

Alonso Echánove (1993) ''By Our Own Correspondent''

Jesús Ochoa (1995) ''Entre Pancho Villa y una mujer desnuda''

Carlos Roberto Majul (1999) ''Ah! Silenciosa''

Peter Butler (2000) ''From Dusk Till Dawn 3: The Hangman's Daughter''

Antonio Banderas (2003) ''And Starring Pancho Villa as Himself''

Alejandro Calva (2009) ''Chico Grande''

''Wild Roses, Tender Roses'' (2012), based on the novel ''The Friends of Pancho Villa'', by James Carlos Blake

References

Further reading

Paco Ignacio Taibo II, "Pancho Villa: Una Biografia Narrativa", Planeta (30 August 2006). ISBN 9703703348, ISBN 978-9703703340.

Paco Ignacio Taibo II, "Pancho Villa", History Channel Documentary, 2008.

Guadalupe Villa y Rosa Helia Villa (eds.), ''Retrato autobiográfico, 1894–1914'', Mexico City, Mexico: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México: Taurus: Santillana Ediciones Generales, c2003 (2004 printing). ISBN 968-19-1311-6.

Katz, Friedrich. ''Life and Times of Pancho Villa'', Stanford University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-8047-3046-6.

Pancho Villa Page http://www.ojinaga.com/villa/.

Eric J. Hobsbawm, ''Bandits'' 1969, New Pr. 2000. ISBN 1565846192 resp. ISBN 978-1565846197.

Jeff Howell, Pancho Villa, Outlaw, Hero, Patriot, Cutthroat: Evaluating the Many Faces of Historical Text Archive.

Micro-biographies, Figures in Mexican History. Francisco Villa, México, 1993. http://www.elbalero.gob.mx/kids/history/html/rev/biovilla.html, 1993.

External links

Statue of Pancho Villa, the Mexican Revolutionary Leader in Tucson, Arizona, United States

Encyclopædia Britannica, Pancho Villa

Photos of Villa and the Mexican Revolution – some graphic images, and some also in the book ''The Wind That Swept Mexico''.

Camp Furlong and Columbus, New Mexico – 1916

Documentary about Pancho Villa

Category:People of the Mexican Revolution Category:19th-century Mexican people Category:Folk saints Category:Governors of Chihuahua Category:Mexican generals Category:Mexican rebels Category:Mexican outlaws Category:People from Durango Category:Deaths by firearm in Mexico Category:1878 births Category:1923 deaths Category:Mexican revolutionaries Category:People murdered in Mexico Category:Mexican folklore Category:Unsolved murders in Mexico Category:Mexican guerrillas

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Colour	#DEDEE2
Name	Henry "Indiana" Jones, Jr.
Series	Indiana Jones
First	''Raiders of the Lost Ark''
Latest	''Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull''
Creator	George LucasSteven Spielberg
Portrayer	Films:Harrison Ford (ages 36–58)River Phoenix (age 13)TV series:Neil Boulane (baby)Corey Carrier (ages 8–10)Sean Patrick Flanery (ages 16–21)George Hall (age 93)Video games:Doug Lee (voice)David Esch (voice)
Birthdate	July 1st, 1899
Birthplace	New Jersey (U.S.)
Nickname	IndianaIndyHenri DefenseMungo KidogoCaptain Dynamite, Scourge of the KaiserJonesy
Alma mater	University of Chicago
Occupation	ArchaeologistAssociate deanCollege professorSoldierSpy
Title	DoctorColonel
Education	University of Chicago
Family	Henry Walton Jones, Sr. (father, deceased)Anna Mary Jones (mother, deceased)Susie Jones (sister, deceased)
Spouse	Deirdre Campbell Jones (1926)Marion Ravenwood Jones (1957–present)
Children	Henry Walton "Mutt" Jones IIISon
Relatives	Pete (uncle)Fred (uncle)Grace Jones (aunt)Frank (cousin)Caroline (granddaughter, probably via his daughter)Henry Walton "Spike" Jones IV (grandson, probably via Mutt)Lucy (granddaughter, probably via his daughter)Annie Jones (great-granddaughter, probably via Mutt)Henry Walton "Harry" Jones V (great-grandson, probably via Mutt)
Nationality	American
Religion	Christian}}

Henry Walton "Indiana" Jones, Jr., Ph.D. is the central protagonist of the ''Indiana Jones'' franchise. George Lucas and Steven Spielberg created the character in homage to the action heroes of 1930s film serials. The character first appeared in the 1981 film ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', to be followed by ''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'' in 1984, ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' in 1989, ''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'' from 1992 to 1996, and ''Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull'' in 2008. Alongside the more widely known films and television programs, the character is also featured in novels, comics, video games, and other media. Jones is also featured in the theme park attraction ''Indiana Jones Adventure'', which exists in similar forms at Disneyland and Tokyo DisneySea.

Jones is most famously played by Harrison Ford and has also been portrayed by River Phoenix (as the young Jones in ''The Last Crusade''), and in the television series ''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'' by Corey Carrier, Sean Patrick Flanery, and George Hall. Doug Lee has supplied Jones's voice to two LucasArts video games, ''Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis'' and ''Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine'', while David Esch supplied his voice to ''Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb''.

Particularly notable facets of the character include his iconic look (bullwhip, fedora, and leather jacket), sense of humor, deep knowledge of many ancient civilizations and languages, and fear of snakes.

Indiana Jones remains one of cinema's most revered movie characters. In 2003, he was ranked as the second greatest movie hero of all time by the American Film Institute. He was also named the sixth greatest movie character by ''Empire'' magazine. ''Entertainment Weekly'' ranked Indy 2nd on their list of ''The All-Time Coolest Heroes in Pop Culture''. ''Premiere'' magazine also placed Indy at number 7 on their list of ''The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time''. Since his first appearance in ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', he has become a worldwide star. On their list of the ''100 Greatest Fictional Characters'', Fandomania.com ranked Indy at number 10. In 2010, he ranked #2 on ''Time'' Magazine's list of the greatest fictional characters of all time, surpassed only by Sherlock Holmes.

Appearances

Indiana Jones, played by Harrison Ford, was first introduced in the 1981 film ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', set in 1936. The character is presented as an adventurer reminiscent of the 1930s film serial treasure hunters and pulp action heroes, whose research is funded by Marshall College (named after producer Frank Marshall) a fictional college in Connecticut, where he is a professor of archaeology. His students are predominantly female. In this first adventure, he is pitted against the Nazis, traveling the world to prevent them from recovering the Ark of the Covenant (see also Biblical archaeology). He is aided by Marion Ravenwood and Sallah. The Nazis are led by Jones's archrival, a Nazi-sympathizing French archaeologist named René Belloq, and Arnold Toht, a sinister Gestapo agent.

The 1984 prequel, ''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'', set in 1935, took the character into a more horror-oriented story, skipping his legitimate teaching job and globe trotting, and taking place almost entirely in India. This time, Jones attempts to recover children and the Sankara stones from the bloodthirsty Thuggee cult. He is aided by Short Round and accompanied by Willie Scott (Kate Capshaw).

The third film, 1989's ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'', set in 1938, returned to the formula of the original, reintroducing characters such as Sallah and Marcus Brody, a scene from Professor Jones's classroom (he now teaches at Barnett College), the globe trotting element of multiple locations, and the return of the infamous Nazi mystics, this time trying to find the Holy Grail. The film's introduction, set in 1912, provided some back story to the character, specifically the origin of his fear of snakes, his use of a bullwhip, the scar on his chin, and his hat; the film's epilogue also reveals that "Indiana" is not Jones's first name, but a nickname he took from the family dog. The film was a buddy movie of sorts, teaming Jones with his father, often to comical effect. Although Lucas intended at the time to do five films, this ended up being the last for over eighteen years, as Lucas could not think of a good plot element to drive the next installment.

The 2008 film, ''Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull'', became the latest film in the series. Set in 1957, 19 years after the third film, it pits an older, wiser Indiana Jones against Soviet agents bent on harnessing the power of a crystal skull discovered in South America by his former colleague Harold Oxley (John Hurt). He is aided in his adventure by an old lover, Marion Ravenwood (Karen Allen), and her son—a young greaser named Henry "Mutt" Williams (Shia LaBeouf), later revealed to be his biological child, Henry Jones III. There were rumors that LaBeouf will take over the Indy franchise. This film also reveals that Jones was recruited by the Office of Strategic Services (a predecessor department to the CIA) during World War II, attaining the rank of Colonel and running covert operations with MI6 agent George McHale on the Soviet Union.

Television

From 1992 to 1996, George Lucas executive-produced a television series named ''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'', which was designed as an educational program for children, spotlighting historical figures and important events, using the concept of a prequel to the films as a draw. The show featured a standard formula of a 93-year-old Jones (George Hall), wearing an eye patch, introducing a story, and then an adventure with either a 17-year-old Jones (Sean Patrick Flanery) or a 10-year-old Jones (Corey Carrier), and even a baby Indy (Neil Boulane). Historical figures featured on the show include Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Leo Tolstoy, Pancho Villa, Charles de Gaulle, Elliot Ness, Ernest Hemingway, Patrick Pearse, Vladimir Lenin, T. E. Lawrence, Winston Churchill, Herman Göring, Theodore Roosevelt, Manfred von Richthofen, and John Ford, in such diverse locations as Egypt, Austria-Hungary, India, China, and the whole of Europe.

One episode, "Young Indiana Jones and the Mystery of the Blues", is bookended by Harrison Ford, reprising his role as the character. Indiana loses one of his eyes sometime between 1957 and when the "Old Indy" segments take place.

The show provided some backstory for the films, as well as new information regarding the character. He was born July 1, 1899, and his middle name is Walton (Lucas's middle name). It is also mentioned that he had a sister called Suzie who died as an infant of fever, and that he eventually has a daughter and grandchildren who appear in some episode introductions and epilogues. His relationship with his father, first introduced in ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'', was further fleshed out with stories about his travels with his father as a young boy. A large portion of the series centered around his activities during World War I.

In 1999, Lucas removed the episode introductions and epilogues by George Hall for the VHS and DVD releases, as he re-edited the episodes into chronologically ordered feature-length stories. The series title was also changed to ''The Adventures of Young Indiana Jones''.

Video games

The character has appeared in several officially licensed games, including Lego Indiana Jones video games, beginning with adaptations of ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', ''Temple of Doom'', two adaptations of ''The Last Crusade'' (one with purely action mechanics, one with an adventure and puzzle based structure) and Indiana Jones' Greatest Adventures which included the storylines from all three of the original films.

Following this, the games branched off into original storylines with Indiana Jones in the Lost Kingdom, ''Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis'', ''Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine'', ''Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb'' and ''Indiana Jones and the Staff of Kings''. ''Emperor's Tomb'' sets up Jones's companion Wu Han and the search for Nurhaci's ashes seen at the beginning of ''Temple of Doom''. The first two games were developed by Hal Barwood and starred Doug Lee as the voice of Indiana Jones; ''Emperor's Tomb'' had David Esch fill the role and ''Staff of Kings'' starred John Armstrong.

There is also a small game from Lucas Arts ''Indiana Jones and His Desktop Adventures''. A video game was made for young Indy called ''Young Indiana Jones and the Instruments of Chaos'', as well as a video game version of ''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles''.

Two Lego Indiana Jones games have also been released. ''Lego Indiana Jones: The Original Adventures'' was released in 2008 and follows the plots of the first three films. It was followed by ''LEGO Indiana Jones 2: The Adventure Continues'' in late 2009. The sequel includes an abbreviated reprise of the first three films, but focuses on the plot of ''Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull''.

Indiana Jones has also made cameo appearances as an unlockable character in the games ''Mercenaries: Playground of Destruction'' and ''Lego Star Wars: The Complete Saga''.

Theme parks

Indiana Jones is featured at several Walt Disney theme park attractions. The Indiana Jones Adventure attractions at Disneyland and Tokyo DisneySea ("Temple of the Forbidden Eye" and "Temple of the Crystal Skull," respectively) place Indy at the forefront of two similar archaeological discoveries. These two temples each contain a wrathful deity who threatens the guests who ride through in World War II troop transports. The attractions, some of the most expensive of their kind at the time, opened in 1995 and 2001, respectively, with sole design credit attributed to Walt Disney Imagineering. Disney did not license Harrison Ford's likeness for the North American version; nevertheless, a differentiated Indiana Jones audio-animatronic character appears at three points in both attractions. However, the Indiana Jones featured in the DisneySea version does use Harrison Ford's likeness but uses Japanese audio for all of his speaking parts. In 2010, some of the Indy audio-animatronics at the Disneyland version have been replaced and now resemble Ford.

Disneyland Resort Paris also features an Indiana Jones-titled ride where people speed off through ancient ruins in a runaway mine wagon similar to that found in ''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom''. ''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Peril'' is a looping roller coaster engineered by Intamin AG, designed by Walt Disney Imagineering, and opened in 1993.

The ''Indiana Jones Epic Stunt Spectacular!'' is a live show that has been presented in the Disney's Hollywood Studios theme park of the Walt Disney World Resort with few changes since the park's 1989 opening under a different name. The 25-minute show presents various stunts framed in the context of a feature film production, and recruits members of the audience to participate in the show. Stunt artists in the show re-create and ultimately reveal some of the secrets of the stunts of the ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'' films, including the well-known "running-from-the-boulder" scene. Stunt performer Anislav Varbanov was fatally injured in August 2009, while rehearsing the popular show. Also at Disney's Hollywood Studios, an audio-animatronic Indiana Jones appears in another attraction; during the The Great Movie Ride's ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'' segment.

Character description and formation

In his role as a college professor of archaeology, Henry Jones Jr. is scholarly and learned in a tweed suit, lecturing on ancient civilizations. In Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, it is revealed that Jones is influenced by the Marxist Archaeologist, Vere Gordon Childe, whose qualified acceptance of cultural diffusionism theory he propounds. Ironically, though Childe loathes fieldwork, Indy goes on to say, "If you want to be a good archaeologist, you gotta get out of the library." This is in tongue-in-cheek contrast to the previous film's comment, "Seventy percent of all archaeology is done in the library."

However, at the opportunity to recover important artifacts, Dr. Jones transforms into "Indiana," a "non-superhero superhero" image he has concocted for himself. Producer Frank Marshall said, "Indy [is] a fallible character. He makes mistakes and gets hurt. [...] That's the other thing people like: He's a real character, not a character with superpowers." Spielberg said there "was the willingness to allow our leading man to get hurt and to express his pain and to get his mad out and to take pratfalls and sometimes be the butt of his own jokes. I mean, Indiana Jones is not a perfect hero, and his imperfections, I think, make the audience feel that, with a little more exercise and a little more courage, they could be just like him." According to Spielberg biographer Douglas Brode, Indiana created his heroic figure so as to escape the dullness of teaching at a school. Both of Indiana's personas reject one another in philosophy, creating a duality. Harrison Ford said the fun of playing the character was because Indiana is both a romantic and a cynic, while scholars have analyzed Indiana as having traits of a lone wolf; a man on a quest; a noble treasure hunter; a hardboiled detective; a human superhero; and an American patriot.

Like many characters in his films, Jones has some autobiographical elements of Spielberg. Indiana lacks a proper father figure because of his strained relationship with his father, Henry Senior. His own contained anger is misdirected at the likes of Professor Abner Ravenwood, his mentor at the University of Chicago, leading to a strained relationship with Marion Ravenwood. The teenage Indiana bases his own look on a figure from the prologue of ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'', after being given his hat. Marcus Brody acts as Indiana's positive role model at the college. Indiana's own insecurities are made worse by the absence of his mother. In ''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'', the character becomes the father in a temporary family unit with Willie Scott and Short Round to survive. Indiana is rescued from the evil of Kali by Short Round's dedication. Indiana also saves many children from slavery.

Because of Indiana's strained relationship with his father, who was absent much of Indiana's youth searching for the Holy Grail, the character does not pursue the more spiritual aspects of the cultures he studies. Indiana uses his knowledge of Shiva to ultimately defeat Mola Ram. In ''Raiders'', however, he is wise enough to close his eyes in the presence of God in the Ark of the Covenant. By contrast, his rival Rene Belloq dies horribly for having the audacity to try to communicate directly with God.

In ''Crusade'''s prologue, Indiana's intentions are revealed as prosocial, as he believes artifacts "belong in a museum." In the film's climax, Indiana undergoes "literal" tests of faith to retrieve the Grail and save his father's life. He also remembers Jesus as a historical figure – a humble carpenter – rather than an exalted figure when he recognizes the simple nature and tarnished appearance of the real Grail amongst a large assortment of much more ornately decorated ones. Henry Senior rescues his son from falling to his death when reaching for the fallen Grail, telling him to "let it go," overcoming his mercenary nature. ''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'' explains how Indiana becomes solitary and less idealistic after fighting in World War I. In ''Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull'', Jones is older and wiser, whereas his sidekicks Mutt and Mac are youthfully arrogant and greedy, respectively.

Origins and inspirations

Indiana Jones is modeled after the strong-jawed heroes of the matinée serials and pulp magazines that George Lucas and Steven Spielberg enjoyed in their childhoods (such as the Republic Pictures serials, and the Doc Savage series). Sir H. Rider Haggard's safari guide/big game hunter Allan Quatermain of ''King Solomon's Mines'', who dates back to 1885, is a notable template for Jones. The two friends first discussed the project in Hawaii around the time of the release of the first ''Star Wars'' film. Spielberg told Lucas how he wanted his next project to be something fun, like perhaps a James Bond film. According to sources, Lucas responded to the effect that he had something "even better," or that he "got that beat."

The other clear basis for "Indiana" Jones is Professor Challenger, Professor George Challenger, created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in 1912 for his novel, ''The Lost World''. Doyle based Prof. Challenger on his old physiology professor, Sir William Rutherford. As an adventuring academic, albeit a zoologist/anthropologist, Professor Challenger is the clear and singular inspiration for "Indiana" Jones. However, it appears the primary source for Indiana Jones was Charlton Heston's character of Harry Steele in "Secret of the Incas", Paramount, 1954.

The character was originally named "Indiana Smith" (perhaps in a nod to the 1966 Western film ''Nevada Smith''), after an Alaskan Malamute Lucas owned in the 1970s ("Indiana"); however, Spielberg disliked the name "Smith," and Lucas casually suggested "Jones" as an alternative based off the archaeologist Vendell Jones. Costume designer Deborah Nadoolman Landis said the inspiration for Indiana's outfit was Charlton Heston's Harry Steele in ''Secret of the Incas'': "We did watch this film together as a crew several times, and I always thought it strange that the filmmakers did not credit it later as the inspiration for the series."

Upon requests by Spielberg and Lucas, the costume designer gave the character a distinctive silhouette through the styling of the hat; after examining many hats, the designers chose a tall-crowned, wide-brimmed fedora. As a documentary of ''Raiders'' pointed out, the hat served a practical purpose. Following the lead of the old "B"-movies that inspired the ''Indiana Jones'' series, the fedora hid the actor's face sufficiently to allow doubles to perform the more dangerous stunts seamlessly. Examples in ''Raiders'' include the wider-angle shot of Indy and Marion crashing a statue through a wall, and Indy sliding under a fast-moving vehicle from front to back. Thus it was necessary for the hat to stay in place much of the time.

The hat became so iconic that the filmmakers could only come up with very good reasons or jokes to remove it. If it ever fell off during a take, filming would have to stop to put it back on. In jest, Ford put a stapler against his head to stop his from falling off when a documentary crew visited during shooting of ''The Last Crusade''. This created the urban legend that Ford stapled the hat to his head. Although other hats were also used throughout the movies, the general style and profile remained the same. Elements of the outfit include: The fedora was supplied by Herbert Johnson Hatters in England for the first three films. It was referred to as "The Australian Model" by costume designer Deborah Nadoolman Landis and was fitted with a Petersham bow. Indy's fedora for ''Crystal Skull'' was made by Steve Delk and Marc Kitter of the Adventurebilt Hat Company.

The leather jacket, a hybrid of the "Type 440" and the A-2 jacket, were made by Leather Concessionaires (now known as Wested Leather Co) for ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'' and ''The Last Crusade''. For ''Temple of Doom'', jackets were made in-house at Bermans & Nathans in London based on a stunt jacket they provided for Raiders of The Lost Ark. Tony Nowak made the jacket in ''Kingdom of the Crystal Skull''.

The bag was a modified Mark VII British gas mask bag, usually worn under the jacket with the exception of Crystal Skull where the bag was inexplicably worn over the jacket.

The whip was a bullwhip crafted by David Morgan for the first three films. The whips for ''Crystal Skull'' were crafted by a variety of people, including Terry Jacka, Joe Strain and Morgan (different lengths and styles were likely used in specific stunts). The pistol was usually a World War I-era revolver, including the Webley Government (''Last Crusade'' and ''Crystal Skull''), or a .45 ACP Smith & Wesson Hand Ejector 2nd model revolver (''Raiders''). He has also used an M1917 revolver (''Temple of Doom''), a Nagant M1895 (''Young Indiana Jones''), and a 9 mm Browning Hi-Power (''Raiders''). The weapon is carried in a military pattern flap holster. The shoes were made by Alden. A stock style that had been a favorite of Ford's before the movies, they are still sold today (though in a redder (brick) shade of brown than seen in the movies) and are popularly known as "Indy Boots."

Jones's fedora and leather jacket (as used in ''The Last Crusade'') are on display at the Smithsonian's American History Museum in Washington, D.C. The collection of props and clothing from the films has become a thriving hobby for some aficionados of the franchise. Jones' whip was the third most popular film weapon, as shown by a 2008 poll held by 20th Century Fox, which surveyed approximately two thousand film fans.

Casting

Originally, Spielberg suggested Harrison Ford; Lucas resisted the idea, since he had already cast the actor in three of his movies (''American Graffiti'', ''Star Wars'', and ''The Empire Strikes Back''), and did not want Ford to become known as his "Bobby De Niro" (in reference to the fact that fellow director Martin Scorsese regularly cast Robert De Niro in his films). During an intensive casting process, Lucas and Spielberg auditioned many actors, and finally cast then little-known actor Tom Selleck as Indiana Jones. Shortly afterward pre-production began in earnest on ''Raiders of the Lost Ark''.

However, CBS refused to release Selleck from his contractual commitment to ''Magnum, P.I.'' (which was gradually gaining momentum in the ratings), forcing him to turn down the role. One of CBS's concerns was that shooting for ''Magnum P.I.'' conflicted with shooting for ''Raiders'', both of which were to begin about the same time. However, Selleck was to say later in an interview that shooting for ''Magnum P.I.'' was delayed and did not actually begin until shooting for ''Raiders'' had concluded. Sadly for Selleck, he could have finished his participation in ''Raiders'' and still had time to return for ''Magnum''.

After Spielberg suggested Ford again, Lucas gave in, and Ford was cast in the role less than three weeks before filming of ''Raiders'' began.

Models

Many people are said to be the real-life inspiration of the Indiana Jones character—although none of the following have been confirmed as inspirations by George Lucas or Steven Spielberg. There are some suggestions, listed here In alphabetical order by last name: Beloit College professor and paleontologist Roy Chapman Andrews. Italian archaeologist and circus strongman Giovanni Battista Belzoni (1778–1823). Yale University professor, historian, and explorer Hiram Bingham III, who rediscovered and excavated the lost city of Machu Picchu, and chronicled his find in the bestselling book ''The Lost City of the Incas'' in 1948. University of Chicago archaeologist Robert Braidwood. University of Chicago archaeologist James Henry Breasted. The British archaeologist Percy Fawcett, who spent much of his life exploring the jungles of northern Brazil, and who was last seen in 1925 returning to the Amazon Basin to look for the Lost City Of Z. A fictionalized version of Fawcett appears to Jones in the book ''Indiana Jones And The Seven Veils''. British archaeologist and soldier T. E. Lawrence. The Northwestern University anthropologist, professor and adventurer William Montgomery McGovern. Frederick Albert Mitchell-Hedges. German archaeologist Otto Rahn.

George Lucas has said on various occasions that Sean Connery's portrayal of British secret agent James Bond was one of the primary inspirations for Jones, a reason Connery was chosen for the role of Indiana's father in the third film, ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade''.

Influence

Though some archaeologists criticize Indy's methods as befitting a "looter" rather more than a careful worker of precious sites, many have adopted the popular figure as something of a standard-bearer for their profession. The industry magazine ''Archaeology'', believing that Jones, as one editor said, was "a horrible archaeologist but a great diplomat for archaeology," named eight past and current archaeologists who they felt "embodied [Jones'] spirit" as recipients of the "Indy Spirit Awards" in 2008. That same year Ford himself was elected to the Board of Directors of the Archaeological Institute of America. Commenting that "understanding the past can only help us in dealing with the present and the future," Ford was praised by the association's president for his character's "significant role in stimulating the public's interest in archaeological exploration."

While himself a homage to various prior adventurers, aspects of Indiana Jones also directly influenced some subsequent characterizations: Lara Croft, the female archaeologist of the ''Tomb Raider'' franchise, was originally designed as a man, but was changed to a woman, partly because the developers felt that the original design was too similar to Indiana Jones. Paramount Pictures, which distributed the Indiana Jones film series, would later make two films based on the ''Tomb Raider'' games.

Nathan Drake, The main protagonist of the Uncharted Video game series.

''Prince of Persia'' producer Ben Mattes explained that their "inspiration was anything Harrison Ford has ever done: Indiana Jones, Han Solo." The video game series ''Uncharted'' is also very heavily influenced by Indiana Jones, as well as some of the influences that led to Indiana Jones himself, such as pulp magazines and movie serials. The design team felt the sources shared themes of mystery and "what-if scenarios" that romanticized adventure and aimed to include those in ''Uncharted''.

Jack West Jr, a character featured in 3 Matthew Reilly books, (''Seven Ancient Wonders'', ''The Six Sacred Stones'' and ''The Five Greatest Warriors'') is heavily influenced by Indiana Jones. Reilly himself is a big fan of George Lucas.

Rick O'Connell of ''The Mummy'' and its sequels.

Ben Franklin Gates of the ''National Treasure'' film series.

In the game ''World of Warcraft'' there is an NPC named Harrison Jones, a reference to Indiana Jones and the actor Harrison Ford. This NPC teaches Archaeology to the character, making them able to find ancient treasures around the world. Furthermore, the game area Uldum has numerous playable quests with Harrison Jones as the main character, which contain a number of lines and references from ''Raiders of the Lost Ark''.

The Tia Carrere television show ''Relic Hunter''.

Robert Langdon from such Dan Brown novels as ''Angels & Demons'', ''The Da Vinci Code'', and ''The Lost Symbol'', adapted for cinema.

References

External links

IndianaJones.com – the official Indiana Jones site

The Indiana Jones Wiki – A wiki devoted to ''Indiana Jones''

Category:Fictional characters introduced in 1981 Category:Fictional archaeologists Category:Fictional characters from New Jersey Category:Fictional professors Category:Fictional American people of Scottish descent Category:Fictional secret agents and spies Category:Fictional colonels Category:Child characters in television Category:Fictional World War I veterans Category:Fictional World War II veterans Category:Indiana Jones characters

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Name	Emiliano Zapata Salazar
Birth date	August 08, 1879
Birth place	Anenecuilco, Morelos, Mexico
Death date	April 10, 1919
Death place	Chinameca, Morelos, Mexico
Organization	Liberation Army of the South
Religion	Roman Catholicism }}

Emiliano Zapata Salazar (August 8, 1879 – April 10, 1919) was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution, which broke out in 1910, and which was initially directed against the president Porfirio Díaz. He formed and commanded an important revolutionary force, the Liberation Army of the South, during the Mexican Revolution. Followers of Zapata were known as ''Zapatistas''.

Biography

Emiliano Zapata was born to Gabriel Zapata and Cleofas Salazar of Zacatepillo. Zapata's family were Mestizos, being of mixed Nahua and Spanish ancestry; Emiliano was the ninth of ten children. A peasant since childhood, he gained insight into the severe difficulties of the countryside. He received a limited education from his teacher, Emilio Vara. He had to care for his family because his father died when Zapata was 17. Around the turn of the 20th century Anenecuilco was an indigenous Nahuatl speaking community; there exist eyewitness accounts stating that Emiliano Zapata spoke Nahuatl fluently.

When Porfirio Díaz rose to power in 1876, the Mexican social and economic system was essentially a proto-capitalist feudal system, with large estates ''(haciendas)'' controlling much of the land and squeezing out the independent communities of the people who were subsequently forced into debt slavery (''peonaje'') on the ''haciendas''. Díaz ran local elections to pacify the people, and a government that could be argued was self-imposed. Under Díaz, close confidants and associates were given offices in districts throughout Mexico. These officials became enforcers of "land reforms" that drove the haciendas into the hands of progressively fewer and wealthier landowners.

Zapata came from a middle class family who were able to avoid peonage and to maintain their own land (''rancho''). In fact, the family had been ''porfiristas'': supporters of Porfirio Díaz. Zapata had the reputation of a dandy, appearing at bullfights and rodeos in his elaborate ''charro'' (cowboy) outfit. In 1906, he attended a meeting in Cuautla to discuss a way to defend the land of the people, on which he had worked as a farmhand. In 1908, due to his first acts of rebellion, he was drafted into the Ninth Regiment and sent to Cuernavaca. However, because of his skill with horses, he remained a soldier for only six months. At the request of Ignacio de la Torre, who employed him as a groom, he left for Mexico City. Though his gaudy attire might have suggested an affiliation with the rich ''hacendados'' who controlled the lands, he retained the admiration of the people of his village, Anenecuilco.

In 1909 an important meeting was called by the elders of Anenecuilco, whose chief elder was José Merino in which he announced his intention to resign from his position due to his old age and limited abilities to continue the fight for the land rights of the village. The meeting was used as a time for discussion and nomination of individuals as a replacement for Merino as the president of the village council. The elders on the council were so well respected by the village men that no one would dare to override their nominations or overtake the vote for an individual against the advice of the current council. The nominations made were: Modesto Gonzales, Bartolo Parral, and Emiliano Zapata. After the completion of nominations, a vote was taken and Zapata became the new council president without contest.

Although Zapata had turned 30 only a month before, the voters knew that it was necessary to elect an individual who would be responsible for the village and who was well respected by the village people. Even though he was young, the village was ready to hand over the controlling force to him without any worry of failure. Before he was elected he had shown the village his nature by helping to head up a campaign in opposition to a candidate for governor. Even though his efforts and his cause failed greatly, he was able to create and cultivate relationships with political authority figures that would prove useful for him. made quiet alliances with Madero, whom he perceived to be the best chance for genuine change in the country. Although he was wary about Madero, Zapata cooperated with him when Madero made vague promises about land reform. Land reform would be the only issue which Zapata cared about.

In 1910, Zapata quickly took an important role, becoming the general of an army that formed in Morelos – the ''Ejército Libertador del Sur'' (Liberation Army of the South). Zapata joined Madero’s campaign against President Diaz When Zapata's army captured Cuautla after a six-day battle on May 19, 1911, it became clear the Diaz would not hold on to power for long. With the support of Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, Emiliano Zapata, and rebellious peasants, Madero overthrew Díaz in May 1911 at the Battle of Ciudad Juárez. A provisional government was formed under Francisco León de la Barra. Under Madero, some new land reforms were carried out and elections were to be ensured. However, Zapata was dissatisfied with Madero's stance on land reform, which Madero did not really believe in, and was unable, despite repeated efforts, to make him understand the importance of the issue or to get him to act on it.

Revolutionary General

Madero was not ready to create a radical change in the manner that agrarian relations operated during this time. Some other individuals , called "anarcho-syndicalist agitators", had made promises to take things back to the way that they had been done previously. The major method of agrarian relations had been that of communal lands, called "ejidos". Although some believed that this could be the best course of action, Madero simply demanded that "Public servants act 'morally' in enforcing the law...". Upon seeing the response by villagers, Madero offered formal justice in courts to individuals who had been wronged by others with regard to agrarian politics. Zapata decided that on the surface it seemed as though Madero was doing good things for the people of Mexico, but Zapata did not know the level of sincerity in Madero's actions and thus did not know if he should support him completely.

Madero and Zapata's relations worsened during the summer of 1911 as Madero appointed a governor who supported plantation owners and refused to meet Zapata’s agrarian goals. Compromises between the two failed in November 1911, days after Madero appointed himself President, and Zapata and Montano fled to the mountains of southwest Puebla. There they formed the most radical reform plan in Mexico; the Plan de Ayala. The plan declared Madero a traitor, named Pascual Orozco head of the Revolution, and outlined a plan for true land reform.

Zapata was partly influenced by an anarchist from Oaxaca named Ricardo Flores Magón. The influence of Flores Magón on Zapata can be seen in the Zapatistas' Plan de Ayala, but even more noticeably in their slogan (this slogan was never used by Zapata) "''Tierra y libertad''" or "land and liberty", the title and maxim of Flores Magón's most famous work. Zapata's introduction to anarchism came via a local schoolteacher, Otilio Montaño Sánchez – later a general in Zapata's army, executed on 17 May 1917 – who exposed Zapata to the works of Peter Kropotkin and Flores Magón at the same time as Zapata was observing and beginning to participate in the struggles of the peasants for the land.

The plan proclaimed the Zapatista demands for "Reforma, Libertad Ley y Justicia" (Reform, Freedom, Law and Justice). Zapata also declared the Maderistas as a counter-revolution and denounced Madero. Zapata mobilized his Liberation Army and allied with former Maderistas Pascual Orozco and Emiliano Vázquez Gómez. Orozco was from Chihuahua, near the U.S. border, and thus was able to aid the Zapatistas with a supply of arms.

In the following weeks, the development of military operations "betray(ed) good evidence of clear and intelligent planning." During Orozco's rebellion, Zapata fought Mexican troops in south and near Mexico City. In the original design of the armed force, Zapata was a mere colonel among several others. However, the true plan that came about though this organization lent itself to Zapata. Zapata believed that the best route of attack would be to center the fighting and action in Cuautla. If this political location could be overthrown, the army would have enough power to "veto anyone else's control of the state, negotiate for Cuernavaca or attack it directly, and maintain independent access to Mexico City as well as escape routes to the southern hills." However, in order to gain this great success, Zapata realized that his men needed to be better armed and trained.

The first line of action demanded that Zapata and his men "control the area behind and below a line from Jojutla to Yecapixtla."

Zapata finally did gain the support necessary by his peers and was considered a "singularly qualified candidate". Due to this amazing sum of money Zapata's group of rebels became one of the strongest in the state financially. After some time Zapata became the leader of his "strategic zone." After a meeting with Zapata and Ambrosio Figueroa in Jolalpan, it was decided that Zapata would have joint power with Figueroa with regard to operations in Morelos. his rebellion in the south soon fizzled and, in the short run, his ideals of land reform and fair treatment for Mexico's poor farmers were put to an end. However, Zapata's heir apparent Gildardo Magaña and many other Zapata adherents went on to political careers as representatives of Zapatista causes and positions in the Mexican army and government. Some of his former generals like Genovevo de la O allied with Obregón while others eventually disappeared after Carranza was deposed.

Legacy

Zapata's influence continues to this day, particularly in revolutionary tendencies in south Mexico. In the long run, he has done more for his ideals in death than he did in life. Like many charismatic idealists, Zapata became a martyr after his treacherous murder. Even though Mexico still has not implemented the sort of land reform he wanted, he is remembered as a visionary who fought for his countrymen.

There are controversies about the portrayal of Emiliano Zapata and his followers, over whether they were simply bandits or revolutionaries. But in modern times, Zapata is one of the most revered national heroes of Mexico. To many Mexicans, specifically the peasant and indigenous citizens, Zapata was a practical revolutionary who sought the implementation of liberties and agrarian rights outlined in the Plan of Ayala. He was a realist with the goal of achieving political and economic emancipation of the peasants in southern Mexico, and leading them out of severe poverty.

Many popular organizations take their name from Zapata, most notably the Zapatista Army of National Liberation ''(Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional'' or EZLN in Spanish), the revolutionary movement of indigenous peoples that emerged in the state of Chiapas in 1994 and is colloquially known as "the Zapatistas". Towns, streets, and housing developments called "Emiliano Zapata" are common across the country and he has, at times, been depicted on Mexican banknotes.

Modern activists in Mexico frequently make reference to Zapata in their campaigns, his image is commonly seen on banners and many chants invoke his name: ''Si Zapata viviera con nosotros anduviera'', "If Zapata lived, he would walk with us." ''Zapata vive, la lucha sigue'', "Zapata lives; the struggle continues."

In the folklore of the people of Morelos, there is a widespread belief that Zapata did not die. The corpse purported to be his was that of a friend posing as Zapata, because there was something on Zapata's chest that the dead body didn't have and that Zapata himself fled to some obscure rural locale.

In 1969 students from the Black Student Council and Mexican-American Youth Association of the University of California San Diego proposed the name Lumumba-Zapata College, for what is now known as Thurgood Marshall College. Additionally, Stanford University in California is home to 'Casa Zapata', a Latin American-themed dorm located in Lucie Stern Hall.

In popular culture

Zapata has been depicted in movies, comics, books, music, and clothing popular with teenagers and young adults. For example, there is a ''Zapata'' (1980) stage musical written by Harry Nilsson and Perry Botkin, libretto by Allan Katz, which ran for 16 weeks at the Goodspeed Opera House in East Haddam, Connecticut. A movie called ''Zapata: El Sueño De Un Heroe'' (''Zapata: A Hero's Dream'') was produced in 2004, starring Mexican actors Alejandro Fernandez, Jaime Camil, and Lucero.

Marlon Brando played Emiliano Zapata in the award-winning movie based on his life, ''Viva Zapata!'' in 1952. The film co-starred Anthony Quinn, who won best supporting actor. The director was Elia Kazan and the writer was John Steinbeck.

Zapata has been the subject of extensive street poster art by the anonymous street artist known as "Cutthroat". Cutthroat Art & Emiliano Zapata

Aliases

"El Tigre del Sur"- ''Tiger of the South''

"El Tigre"- ''The Tiger''

"El Tigrillo"- ''Little Tiger''

"El Caudillo del Sur"- ''Caudillo of the South''

"El Atila del Sur"- ''The Attila of the South'

See also

Mexican Revolution

Pancho Villa

''Viva Zapata!''

References

Sources

"Emiliano Zapata", BBC Mundo.com

''Villa and Zapata'' by Frank Mclynn

Fernando Horcasitas, ''De Porfirio Díaz a Zapata, memoria náhuatl de Milpa Alta'', UNAM, México DF.,1968 (eye and ear-witness account of Zapata speaking Nahuatl)

John Womack, ''Zapata and the Mexican Revolution,'' New York, Vintage (1969) ISBN 0394708539

Enrique Krauze, Zapata: El amor a la tierra, in the ''Biographies of Power'' series.

Samuel Brunk, ''¡Emiliano Zapata! Revolution and Betrayal in Mexico''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995.

Jeffrey Kent Lucas, ''The Rightward Drift of Mexico's Former Revolutionaries: The Case of Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama''. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2010.

External links

Google video of Zapata

Full text html version of Zapata's "Plan de Ayala" in Spanish

Emiliano Zapata videos

Bicentenario del inicio del movimiento de Independencia Nacional y del Centenario del inicio de la Revolución Mexicana

Category:1879 births Category:1919 deaths Category:People from Morelos Category:19th-century Mexican people Category:Assassinated Mexican politicians Category:Deaths by firearm in Mexico Category:Deified people Category:Folk saints Category:Mexican generals Category:Mexican rebels Category:Mexican revolutionaries Category:Nahua people Category:People murdered in Mexico Category:People of the Mexican Revolution Category:Zapatistas

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