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Adad-nirari I
Adad-nirari I (1307 BCE – 1275 BCE or 1295 BCE - 1263 BCE) was a king of Assyria. He is the earliest Assyrian king whose annals survive in any detail.
http://wn.com/Adad-nirari_I -
Alfred Kidder
http://wn.com/Alfred_Kidder -
Algonquian peoples
The Algonquian are one of the most populous and widespread North American Native language groups, with tribes originally numbering in the hundreds. Today hundreds of thousands of individuals identify with various Algonquian peoples. This grouping consists of peoples that speak Algonquian languages.
http://wn.com/Algonquian_peoples -
Alison Wylie
Alison Wylie is a Canadian feminist philosopher of science at the University of Washington, Seattle. In her own words, Wylie describes her interests in the following:
http://wn.com/Alison_Wylie -
Arthur Evans
Sir Arthur John Evans (8 July 1851 – 11 July 1941) was a British archaeologist most famous for unearthing the palace of Knossos on the Greek island of Crete and for developing the concept of Minoan civilization from the structures and artifacts found there and elsewhere throughout eastern Mediterranean. Evans was the first to define Cretan scripts Linear A and Linear B, as well as an earlier pictographic writing.
http://wn.com/Arthur_Evans -
Augustus Pitt Rivers
Lieutenant-General Augustus Henry Lane Fox Pitt Rivers (14 April 1827 – 4 May 1900) was an English army officer, ethnologist, and archaeologist. He was noted for his innovations in archaeological methods, and in the museum display of archaeological and ethnological collections.
http://wn.com/Augustus_Pitt_Rivers -
Austria
Austria or (), officially the Republic of Austria (German: ), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.3 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by Germany and the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below , and its highest point is . The majority of the population speaks German, which is also the country's official language. Other local official languages are Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
http://wn.com/Austria -
Bruce Trigger
Bruce Graham Trigger, OC, OQ, FRSC (June 18, 1937–December 1, 2006) was a Canadian archaeologist, anthropologist, and ethnohistorian.
http://wn.com/Bruce_Trigger -
Charles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin FRS (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist who established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection. He published his theory with compelling evidence for evolution in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species. The scientific community and much of the general public came to accept evolution as a fact in his lifetime, but it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed that natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution. In modified form, Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.[http://darwin-online.org.uk/biography.html The Complete Works of Darwin Online - Biography.] darwin-online.org.uk. Retrieved on 2006-12-15
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Christopher Tilley
__NOTOC__
http://wn.com/Christopher_Tilley -
civilisation
http://wn.com/civilisation -
Colin Renfrew
http://wn.com/Colin_Renfrew -
David Hurst Thomas
David Hurst Thomas is the curator of anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. He was born and raised in California and after initially wanting to major in pre-med, ended up receiving all of his degrees in anthropology (including a Ph.D. in 1971) from the University of California, Davis instead. He is one of the founding trustees for the National Museum of the American Indian at the Smithsonian Institution, was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1989, and received the Presidential Recognition Award from the Society for American Archaeology.
http://wn.com/David_Hurst_Thomas -
Dorothy Garrod
Dorothy Annie Elizabeth Garrod (5 May 1892–18 December 1968) was a British archaeologist who was the first woman to hold an Oxbridge chair, partly through her pioneering work on the Palaeolithic period. Her father was Sir Archibald Garrod, the physician.
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Edward Tylor
http://wn.com/Edward_Tylor -
Erich von Däniken
Erich Anton Paul von Däniken (born April 14, 1935) is a Swiss author best known for his controversial claims about extraterrestrial influences on early human culture, in books such as Chariots of the Gods?, published in 1968. Däniken is one of the main figures responsible for popularizing the paleocontact and ancient astronaut hypotheses.
http://wn.com/Erich_von_Däniken -
First Nations
First Nations is a term of ethnicity that refers to the Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis. There are currently over 630 recognised First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. The total population is nearly 700,000 people. Under the Employment Equity Act, First Nations are a "designated group", along with women, visible minorities, and persons with physical or mental disabilities. They are not defined as a visible minority under the Act or by the criteria of Statistics Canada.
http://wn.com/First_Nations -
Flavio Biondo
Flavio Biondo (Latin Flavius Blondus) (1392 – June 4, 1463) was an Italian Renaissance humanist historian. He was one of the first historians to used a three-period division of history (Ancient, Medieval, Modern) and is known as one of the first archaeologists.
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George Bass
George Bass (30 January 1771 - after 5 February 1803) was a British naval surgeon and explorer of Australia.
http://wn.com/George_Bass -
Glyn Daniel
Glyn Edmund Daniel (23 April 1914–13 December 1986) was a Welsh scientist who specialised in the European Neolithic and made some of the earliest efforts to popularise the subject on radio and television.
http://wn.com/Glyn_Daniel -
Gordon Willey
Gordon Randolph Willey (7 March 1913 – 28 April 2002) was an American archaeologist famous for his fieldwork in South and Central America as well as the southeastern United States. Regarded as one of the leading figures in 20th-century archaeology, Willey had a profound influence on the development and practice of archaeology in the Americas and has been described by colleagues as the "dean" of New World archaeology.
http://wn.com/Gordon_Willey -
Heinrich Schliemann
Heinrich Schliemann (; (January 6, 1822 – December 26, 1890) was a German businessman and archaeologist, and an advocate of the historical reality of places mentioned in the works of Homer. Schliemann was an important archaeological excavator of Troy, along with the Mycenaean sites Mycenae and Tiryns. His successes lent material weight to the idea that Homer's Iliad and Virgil's Aeneid reflect actual historical events.
http://wn.com/Heinrich_Schliemann -
indigenous peoples
http://wn.com/indigenous_peoples -
Kennewick Man
Kennewick Man is the name for the skeletal remains of a prehistoric (Paleo-Indian) man found on a bank of the Columbia River in Kennewick, Washington, USA on July 28, 1996. The discovery of Kennewick Man was accidental; a pair of spectators (Will Thomas and David Deacy) found his skull while attending the annual hydroplane races.
http://wn.com/Kennewick_Man -
Kent Flannery
http://wn.com/Kent_Flannery -
Kevin Greene
Kevin Darwin Greene (born July 31, 1962 in Schenectady, New York) is a former American football linebacker who played in the National Football League for 15 years and who retired after the 1999 NFL season. Greene is currently the outside linebackers coach for the Green Bay Packers.
http://wn.com/Kevin_Greene -
Lewis Henry Morgan
http://wn.com/Lewis_Henry_Morgan -
Max Uhle
Max Uhle (1856 - 1944) was a German archaeologist, whose work in Peru, Chile, Ecuador and Bolivia at the turn of the Twentieth Century had a significant impact on the practice of archaeology of South America.
http://wn.com/Max_Uhle -
Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica or Meso-America () is a region and culture area in the Americas, extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, within which a number of pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries.
http://wn.com/Mesoamerica -
Mortimer Wheeler
Brigadier Sir Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler CH, CIE, MC, FBA, FSA (10 September 1890 – 22 July 1976), was one of the best-known British archaeologists of the twentieth century.
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pharaoh
http://wn.com/pharaoh -
society
http://wn.com/society -
Timothy Pauketat
Dr. Timothy R. Pauketat is an “American Bottom” Mississippian-era archaeologist and professor of Anthropology at the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana. He is best known for his investigations at and involving the World Heritage site of Cahokia Mounds near St. Louis, MO.
http://wn.com/Timothy_Pauketat -
Vine Deloria, Jr.
Vine Deloria, Jr. (March 26, 1933 – November 13, 2005) was an American Indian author, theologian, historian, and activist.
http://wn.com/Vine_Deloria_Jr
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Allumette Island
http://wn.com/Allumette_Island -
Ancona
Ancona (; from ) is a city and a seaport in the Marche, a region of central Italy, population 101,909 (2005). Ancona is situated on the Adriatic Sea and is the center of the province of Ancona and the capital of the region.
http://wn.com/Ancona -
Austria
Austria or (), officially the Republic of Austria (German: ), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.3 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by Germany and the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below , and its highest point is . The majority of the population speaks German, which is also the country's official language. Other local official languages are Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
http://wn.com/Austria -
Copán
Copán is an archaeological site of the Maya civilization located in the Copán Department of western Honduras, not far from the border with Guatemala. It was the capital city of a major Classic period kingdom from the 5th to 9th centuries AD. The city was located in the extreme southeast of the Mesoamerican cultural region, on the frontier with the Isthmo-Colombian cultural region, and was almost surrounded by non-Maya peoples. In this fertile valley now lies a city of about 3000, a small airport, and a winding road.
http://wn.com/Copán -
Cranborne Chase
Cranborne Chase () is a Chalk plateau in central southern England, straddling the counties Dorset, Hampshire and Wiltshire. The plateau is part of the English Chalk Formation and is adjacent to Salisbury Plain and the West Wiltshire Downs in the north, the Dorset Downs to the south west and the South Downs running south east. The scarp slope of the hills is to west, such as at Shaftesbury, and to some extent along the edge of the Vale of Wardour to the north. The chalk gently slopes south and dips under the clays and gravels.
http://wn.com/Cranborne_Chase -
Crete
Crete (, Kriti or occasionally Krētē) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea at . Crete is one of the 13 peripheries of Greece and covers the same area as the Greek region of Crete from before the 1987 administrative reform. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece; while it retains its own local cultural traits (such as its own music and dialect), Cretans identify themselves as Greeks. Heraklion is the largest city and capital of Crete.
http://wn.com/Crete -
Egypt
Egypt (; , Miṣr, ; Egyptian Arabic: مصر, Maṣr, ; Coptic: , ; Greek: Αίγυπτος, Aiguptos; Egyptian:
http://wn.com/Egypt -
England
England () is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the North Sea to the east, with the English Channel to the south separating it from continental Europe. Most of England comprises the central and southern part of the island of Great Britain in the North Atlantic. The country also includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly and the Isle of Wight.
http://wn.com/England -
India
India (), officially the Republic of India ( ; see also official names of India), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east; and it is bordered by Pakistan to the west; Bhutan, the People's Republic of China and Nepal to the north; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, mainland India and the Lakshadweep Islands are in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives, while India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share maritime border with Thailand and the Indonesian island of Sumatra in the Andaman Sea. India has a coastline of .
http://wn.com/India -
Innsbruck
Innsbruck is the capital city of the federal state of Tyrol in western Austria. It is located in the Inn Valley at the junction with the Wipptal (Sill River), which provides access to the Brenner Pass, some south of Innsbruck. Located in the broad valley between high mountains, the Nordkette (Hafelekar, ) in the north, Patscherkofel () and Serles () in the south, it is an internationally renowned winter sports centre, and hosted the 1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics and the 1984 and 1988 Winter Paralympics. It is to host the 1st Winter Youth Olympics in 2012. The word bruck comes from the German word Brücke meaning "bridge" which leads to "the bridge over the Inn".
http://wn.com/Innsbruck -
Iowa
Iowa () is a state located in the Midwestern United States, an area often referred to as the "American Heartland." It derives its name from the Ioway people, one of the many American Indian tribes that occupied the state at the time of European exploration. Iowa was a part of the French colony of New France. After the Louisiana Purchase, settlers laid the foundation for an agriculture-based economy in the heart of the Corn Belt. Iowa is often known as the "Food Capital of the World", however Iowa's economy, culture, and landscape are diverse. In the mid and late 20th century, Iowa's agricultural economy transitioned to a diversified economy of advanced manufacturing, processing, financial services, biotechnology, and green energy production. Iowa has been listed as one of the safest states in which to live. Des Moines is Iowa's capital and largest city.
http://wn.com/Iowa -
Israel
Israel (, ''Yisrā'el; , Isrā'īl), officially the State of Israel (Hebrew: , Medīnat Yisrā'el; , Dawlat Isrā'īl''), is a parliamentary republic in the Middle East located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, Egypt and Gaza on the southwest, and contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel is the world's only predominantly Jewish state, and is defined as A Jewish and Democratic State by the Israeli government.
http://wn.com/Israel -
Los Angeles
Los Angeles ( ; , Spanish for "The Angels") is the second most populous city in the United States, the most populous city in the state of California and the western United States, with a population of 3.83 million within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Los Angeles extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of over 14.8 million and it is the 14th largest urban area in the world, affording it megacity status. The metropolitan statistical area (MSA) is home to nearly 12.9 million residents while the broader Los Angeles-Long Beach-Riverside combined statistical area (CSA) contains nearly 17.8 million people. Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated and one of the most multicultural counties in the United States. The city's inhabitants are referred to as "Angelenos" ().
http://wn.com/Los_Angeles -
Lubbock, Texas
Lubbock () is a city in the U.S. state of Texas. Located in the northwestern part of the state, a region known historically as the Llano Estacado, it is the county seat of Lubbock County, and the home of Texas Tech University and Lubbock Christian University. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the city population was 199,564, making it the 87th largest city in the United States and the 11th largest in Texas. The 2009 population was estimated to be 225,856. with the Lubbock metropolitan area having a population of 276,659 Lubbock County had an estimated 2009 population of 270,550.
http://wn.com/Lubbock_Texas -
Lycoming College
Founded in 1812, Lycoming College is located in Williamsport, Pennsylvania. The College enrolls 1500 undergraduate students from over 28 states and 12 foreign countries. Eighty percent of the College's students live on campus. Lycoming College is affiliated with the United Methodist Church but operates as an independent institution.
http://wn.com/Lycoming_College -
Maniwaki, Quebec
Maniwaki is a town north of Gatineau and located north-west of Montreal, in the province of Quebec, Canada. The town is situated on the Gatineau River, along Route 105, not far south of Route 107 and Route 117 (Trans-Canada Highway). It is the administrative centre for La Vallée-de-la-Gatineau Regional County Municipality, Quebec.
http://wn.com/Maniwaki_Quebec -
Mexico
Mexico, (pronounced ; ), officially known as the United Mexican States (), is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost 2 million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fifth-largest country in the Americas by total area and the 14th largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of 111 million, it is the 11th most populous country and the most populous Hispanophone country on Earth. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city.
http://wn.com/Mexico -
Morrison Island
http://wn.com/Morrison_Island -
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland (, Ulster Scots: Norlin Airlann) is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, it shares a border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west. At the time of the 2001 UK Census, its population was 1,685,000, constituting about 30% of the island's total population and about 3% of the population of the United Kingdom.
http://wn.com/Northern_Ireland -
Ottawa
Ottawa ( or ) is the capital of Canada, a municipality and the second largest city within the province of Ontario. Located in the Ottawa Valley, in the eastern portion of Southern Ontario, the city lies on the Ottawa River, a major waterway forming the local boundary between the provinces of Ontario and Quebec.
http://wn.com/Ottawa -
Ottawa Valley
The Ottawa Valley is the Eastern Ontario valley surrounding the Ottawa River for the west-east portion of its path through the Canadian Shield from Mattawa to Hawkesbury. Because of the surrounding shield, the valley is narrow at its western end, then becomes increasingly wide (mainly on the Southern Ontario side of the river) as it progresses eastward. The underlying geophysical structure is the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben. Approximately 1.3 million people reside in the valley (and along its tributaries), of these the majority, around 80%, reside in Ottawa, the remainder on the north side of the Ottawa river, in Quebec. The National Capital Region area has just over 1.4 million inhabitants in both provinces.
http://wn.com/Ottawa_Valley -
Scotland
Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Alba) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland includes over 790 islands including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides.
http://wn.com/Scotland -
Siberia
Siberia ( ), is a vast region, constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union (USSR) from its beginning, as the preceding Russian Empire conquered it in the 16th century.
http://wn.com/Siberia -
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country located at the southern tip of Africa, with a coastline on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. To the north lie Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe; to the east are Mozambique and Swaziland; while Lesotho is an independent country wholly surrounded by South African territory.
http://wn.com/South_Africa -
Texas
Texas () is the second-largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state in the contiguous United States.
http://wn.com/Texas -
Troy
Troy (Hittite: Wilusa or Truwisa; Greek: , Ilion, and , Troia; Latin: Trōia and Īlium; Turkish: Truva and Troia) was a city, both factual and legendary, located in northwest Anatolia in what is now Turkey, southeast of the Dardanelles and beside Mount Ida. It is best known for being the focus of the Trojan War described in the Greek Epic Cycle and especially in the Iliad, one of the two epic poems attributed to Homer. Metrical evidence from the Iliad and the Odyssey seems to show that the name Ἴλιον (Ilion) formerly began with a digamma: Ϝίλιον (Wilion). This was later supported by the Hittite form Wilusa.
http://wn.com/Troy -
United States
The United States of America (also referred to as the United States, the U.S., the USA, or America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Caribbean and Pacific.
http://wn.com/United_States -
Valley of the Kings
The Valley of the Kings (, less often وادي بيبان الملوك Wādī Bībān al-Mulūk; "Valley of the Gates of the Kings") is a valley in Egypt where, for a period of nearly 500 years from the 16th to 11th century BC, tombs were constructed for the Pharaohs and powerful nobles of the New Kingdom (the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Dynasties of Ancient Egypt).
http://wn.com/Valley_of_the_Kings -
Wales
Wales ( ; pronounced ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has an estimated population of three million and is officially bilingual with the Welsh and English languages having equal status. The Welsh language is an important element of Welsh culture. Its decline has reversed over recent years, with Welsh speakers estimated to be around 20% of the population of Wales.
http://wn.com/Wales
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Xperia Arc preview Full HD by HDblog (ENG)
Xperia Arc, the last Android phone by Sony Ericsson with Android 2.3 Gingerbread. More info: android.hdblog.it
http://wn.com/Xperia_Arc_preview_Full_HD_by_HDblog_ENG
Sony Ericsson Xperia arc Demo
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:30
- Published: 07 Jan 2011
- Uploaded: 29 Nov 2011
- Author: PhoneArena
This is PhoneArena's demonstration of the Sony Ericsson arc. For more on this visit our website at: www.phonearena.com
http://wn.com/Sony_Ericsson_Xperia_arc_Demo
Sony Ericsson XPERIA Arc Hands-On
Sony Ericsson XPERIA Arc Hands-On by Aaron Aaron gets a first look at the Sony Ericsson XPERIA Arc, the newest device in the XPERIA lineup. It's sporting a 1 GHz processor, 4.2-inch "Reality Display" (yes, the high-resolution catchphrases will never die), some HDMI goodness, Android 2.3 (Gingerbread), and Sony Ericsson's custom user interface. The device is impressively thin with some nice curves, though it's a bit plasticky. It'll be available by the end of Q1 (March), but there's no word on carrier partnerships or the regions that will be receiving the device. Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter: www.twitter.com Forums: forums.phonedog.com Win Free Phones: sweeps.phonedog.com
http://wn.com/Sony_Ericsson_XPERIA_Arc_Hands-On
Sony Ericsson Xperia arc Preview
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:10
- Published: 14 Jan 2011
- Uploaded: 02 Dec 2011
- Author: PhoneArena
PhoneArena reviews the Sony Ericsson Xperia arc. Officially introduced at CES 2011, the Sony Ericsson Xperia arc represents the next big thing in the manufacturer's line-up. Sony Ericsson seems to be learning from its mistakes, as the handset comes not only with breathtaking design and hardware, but finally with the latest version of Android -- 2.3 Gingerbread -- right out of the box... For more details, check out our full review: www.phonearena.com
http://wn.com/Sony_Ericsson_Xperia_arc_Preview
Sony Ericsson Xperia Arc Hands On
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:35
- Published: 06 Jan 2011
- Uploaded: 02 Dec 2011
- Author: jon4lakers
Sony Ericsson Xperia Arc: Hands On From CES 2011 From CES 2011 we got some hands on time with Sony's newest smartphone, the Xperia Arc. This is definitely one of those devices that needs to held to be appreciated. It's extremely thin, but manages to feel sturdy. For a full demonstration and spec rundown, mash the play button. For more exclusive coverage: TechnoBuffalo: bit.ly Twitter: bit.ly
http://wn.com/Sony_Ericsson_Xperia_Arc_Hands_On
ARC
"ARC is a short movie-come-music video concerning the only slightly implausible affair between a young man with Down's syndrome and a very beautiful young blonde." --Ben Marshall, Guardian Unlimited blogs.guardian.co.uk Music by Why? "Gemini (Birthday Song)" (www.anticon.com) Directed by Christopher Louie View the quicktime here walterrobot.com
http://wn.com/ARC
Tesla Coils - Arc Attack - Doctor Who Theme Song - Makers Faire 2010 - San Mateo - No. 1
www.youtube.com ArcAttack auditioned for America's Got Talent. ArcAttack employs a unique DJ set up of their own creation to generate an 'electrifying' audio visual performance. The HVDJ pumps music through a PA system while two specially designed DRSSTC's (Dual-Resonant Solid State Tesla Coils) act as separate synchronized instruments. These high tech machines produce an electrical arc similar to a continuous lightning bolt and put out a crisply distorted square wave sound reminiscent of the early days of synthesizers. i filmed this video @ makers faire san mateo expo center.... web site: www.arcattack.com ArcAttackmusic youtube channel www.youtube.com For what it's worth: I happened to aquire a free ticket to the Makers Faire in San Mateo California on May 22 2010 (first time i ever went) as i was walking to the inside building Arkattack started their show looked interesting so i walked over and began filming using my Sony "G" HD video camera and realized as i was filming that the music sounded familiar thinking nothing of it. Then after uploading the raw video onto youtube and finally the first ten post came in on this video one of which the user stated that this is the Doctor Who Theme Song lol then i finally realized whoa i remember watching the Doctor Who show years ago. I had no idea that the video i filmed of ArcAttack's performance would get so many views in such a short time. Then later on it dawned on me whoa i actually unkowingly became a maker at the Makers <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Tesla_Coils__Arc_Attack__Doctor_Who_Theme_Song__Makers_Faire_2010__San_Mateo__No_1
Sony Ericsson XPERIA arc
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:48
- Published: 05 Jan 2011
- Uploaded: 03 Dec 2011
- Author: gagadgetvideo
Анонс Sony Ericsson XPERIA arc: gagadget.com
http://wn.com/Sony_Ericsson_XPERIA_arc
Pearl Jam - Arc
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:06
- Published: 13 Feb 2009
- Uploaded: 17 Nov 2011
- Author: 1michelemichele1
2002 - "Riot Act"
http://wn.com/Pearl_Jam__Arc
Plasma Speaker / Singing Arc - Early Modulated Prototype
Please watch my other videos of this... Here is an early crude prototype of a powerful plasma arc speaker / tweeter. This has now been superseeded by an efficient microcontroller based system. Supply voltage in this design is 50V DC - HV output is approx 60KV - Be sure to subscribe, to receive future video updates on this project & others :)
http://wn.com/Plasma_Speaker_/_Singing_Arc__Early_Modulated_Prototype
Weekend Project: The Arc Light
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:09
- Published: 05 Feb 2010
- Uploaded: 01 Dec 2011
- Author: makemagazine
Build an amazing 19th century arc light out of simple materials. blog.makezine.com
http://wn.com/Weekend_Project_The_Arc_Light
electric arc
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:18
- Published: 30 Apr 2007
- Uploaded: 02 Dec 2011
- Author: shushrutha
amazing 1 chk out
http://wn.com/electric_arc
The Passion of Joan of Arc (1928) 1/8
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:14
- Published: 29 Nov 2008
- Uploaded: 03 Dec 2011
- Author: passionofjoanofarc4u
Playlist: www.youtube.com Includes Richard Einhorn's Voices of Light, a choral and orchestral work that he was inspired to write by viewing the film. "A rustic woman, very sincere, who was also a woman who had suffered," is how director Carl Theodor Dreyer described Joan of Arc. In his silent, black and white masterpiece of 1927, "La Passion de Jeanne d'Arc", Dreyer captured all three facets of her personality, drawing on a monumental performance from Renée Maria Falconetti as the French military leader turned martyred saint. A stark and intense film, "Jeanne d'Arc" is renowned for its sparse shooting style - which focuses in on Falconetti's face with such relentless fascination that everything else (sets, props, secondary characters) disappear from view. By showing so little interest in extraneous details, Dreyer produces a haunting vision of one woman's suffering, charting her wide-eyed terror as she is confronted by a jury of French ecclesiastics who want simply to burn her to death. Director: Carl Theodor Dreyer Writer: Carl Theodor Dreyer, Joseph Delteil Cast: Renee Maria Falconetti, Eugene Silvain, Andre Berley, Maurice Schutz, Louis Ravet
http://wn.com/The_Passion_of_Joan_of_Arc_1928_1/8
Hey Rosetta! - There's An Arc
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:17
- Published: 25 Feb 2009
- Uploaded: 03 Dec 2011
- Author: jcanning123
An unofficial but big hearted video for the Hey Rosetta! song, There's An Arc, from their album, into your lungs (and around in your heart and on through your blood). Shot over a few hours on a winter Sunday at Tims house, the band plays the song live in one unbroken take. For more Hey Rosetta!, visit www.heyrosetta.com Also check out Death is Quick: www.youtube.com and Yes! Yes! Yes!: www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/Hey_Rosetta!__There's_An_Arc
How to Use an Arc Weld : Basics of Shielded Metal Arc Welding
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:31
- Published: 28 Apr 2007
- Uploaded: 02 Dec 2011
- Author: expertvillage
Learn the basics of shielded arc welding from an arc welding expert in this free DIY video. Expert: Malcolm MacDonald Bio: Malcolm MacDonald graduated from Connestoga College in 1968 taking the Fitter Welding Program. Filmmaker: Melissa Schenk
http://wn.com/How_to_Use_an_Arc_Weld__Basics_of_Shielded_Metal_Arc_Welding
Sony Ericsson XPERIA Arc hands-on
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:17
- Published: 07 Jan 2011
- Uploaded: 03 Dec 2011
- Author: gsmarena07
A short Sony Ericsson XPERIA Arc hands-on video.
http://wn.com/Sony_Ericsson_XPERIA_Arc_hands-on
Arc Welding with 3 Car Batteries (Tutorial & Demo)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:48
- Published: 13 Jan 2009
- Uploaded: 03 Dec 2011
- Author: WheeliePete
Emergency welding technique using 3 car batteries wired in series. Knowing how to do this may just save you from haivng to leave your rig out in the middle of nowhere. If you're going to go wheeling you need to know how to save your own butt. AAA doesn't respond if your 20 miles off the beaten path. This is the second video that I've done on this subject. The first video showed me doing an acutal trail repair, but wasn't very detailed. I had so many responses from people that didn't understand what was going on, or for some reason thought it wasn't possible, that I decided to do a video in a controlled environment and show exactly what welding with car batteries is all about.
http://wn.com/Arc_Welding_with_3_Car_Batteries_Tutorial_Demo
Sony Ericsson Xperia arc Review
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:35
- Published: 11 Apr 2011
- Uploaded: 03 Dec 2011
- Author: PhoneArena
PhoneArena reviews the Sony Ericsson Xperia arc. It's no secret that the Sony Ericsson Xperia X10 was somewhat of a letdown considering it was pegged as the mobile giant's multimedia powerhouse. On paper, it looked great, but the reality was the likes of HTC's Sense UI made Sony Ericsson's Android skin feel more like a beta than a final release. The Sony Ericsson Xperia arc therefore represents a reboot - curvaceously sexy, endowed with a new screen technology and a revised UI... For more details, check out our web site: www.phonearena.com
http://wn.com/Sony_Ericsson_Xperia_arc_Review
500000 volt electrical arc
This device is called an isolator. It's a mechanical disconnect that opens and closes a 500000 volt electrical transmission line at the El Dorado electrical substation near Boulder City, Nevada. Another device called a switcher is supposed to open the circuit first, then the isolator opens to physically disconnect the circuit. The switcher has had a history of one of the three phases failing to open. When this happens, the isolator opens with one phase still energized. Since the isolator isn't designed to open hot, there's no arc suppression. and the result is quite spectacular. Because of the history of periodic failures when the switcher has been opened, a video camera had been set up to record the event should it happen again. They were in luck and caught it. The arc ends when an upstream circuit breaker is opened. Full credit goes to Neil Brady who captured this amazing sight. The "wow" at the end of the video says it all.
http://wn.com/500000_volt_electrical_arc
Robbie Maddison's 2008 New Year's Eve jump
Robbie Maddison achieves the impossible, jumping his motorcycle to the top of the Arc de Triomphe at the Paris Las Vegas. Then he came down. Congratulations Robbie. redbullnewyearnolimits.com
http://wn.com/Robbie_Maddison's_2008_New_Year's_Eve_jump
La Passion de Jeanne D'Arc
Excerpt from The Passion of Joan of Arc by Carl Theodor Dreyer
http://wn.com/La_Passion_de_Jeanne_D'Arc
Microsoft Arc Touch Mouse - The Inspiration
microsoft.com - New Arc Touch Mouse. How it was invented and what is it?
http://wn.com/Microsoft_Arc_Touch_Mouse__The_Inspiration
photo: AP / Shizuo Kambayashi
22 Dec 2011
Bangkok - Chinese Vice President Xi Jinping on Thursday presided over the signing of agreements with Thailand on a high-speed train project and a currency swap arrangement to facilitate bilateral...
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size: 17.7Kb
photo: AP / Scanpix/Henrik Montgomery
19 Dec 2011
Stockholm - A Swedish court late Monday approved ailing carmaker Saab's bankruptcy application and named two receivers to oversee the process, after its Dutch owner Swedish Automobile failed to secure...
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size: 17.6Kb
photo: creative commons
18 Dec 2011
Jason Reitman was under the same impression many are of Charlize Theron. He knew she was a fiercely talented actress, prone to burying her beauty behind gritty, intense performances like her Academy...
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The Examiner
Debt has been around a long time, as has the act of forgiving debts, wrote David Graber in “Debt: The First 5,000 Years” (Melville House) published in July 2011. That he also had something to do with inspiring the Occupy Wall Street movement isn’t surprising – he’s a...
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Business Wire
Technology Utilized to Foresee Probable Three-Year Funding Gaps for the Non-Profit Organization ITHACA, N.Y.--(BUSINESS WIRE)--Palisade Corporation, the provider of the world's leading risk and decision analysis software, @RISK and the DecisionTools Suite, announced that Arc of Yates County, New...
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Books Pick: Russian Arc
20 Dec 2011
New Yorker
A block from the Kremlin, the apartment building at 3 Romanov Lane has housed such figures as Trotsky, Shostakovich, Khruschev, and...
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size: 0.9Kb
The New York Times
At the beginning of the year, Suzanne Hart was assigned to oversee the redesign of her employer’s internal Web site, coordinating designers and technology specialists and countless others. The project could easily have taken seven or eight months. Ozier Muhammad/The New York Times Connect with...
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size: 10.3Kb
The Arc completes circle of caring
19 Dec 2011
my SA
Cerebral palsy took Tameka Hughes' ability to walk and talk, but not her mind or ability to hear. She knows when she is being treated like a child. With a single finger of her right hand the 28-year-old will tap out a response on the pink keyboard of her communicator and in a crisp feminine English...
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size: 2.8Kb
The Arc - Give the Gift of Achievement
18 Dec 2011
The Examiner
The Arc overcame some major threats this year to people with I/DD and their families. With your support to Give the Gift of Achievement, they will continue their work in 2012 to protect the rights of people with disabilities and support their full inclusion and participation in the...
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size: 5.7Kb
The Oklahoman
“Maid: A Novel of Joan of Arc” by Kimberly Cutter is a humanistic look at the remarkable peasant girl who became a visionary, a warrior and a saint. BY BETTY LYTLE Oklahoman Comments...
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size: 4.9Kb
Screen Daily
Twilight Portrait takes top award at third edition of Les Arcs, festival plans new fund. Angelina Nikanova’s Russian drama Twilight Portrait was awarded the Crystal Arrow by the Les Arcs European Film Festival, which closed last night. The jury, presided over by actor and director Michele Placido,...
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Archaeology, or archeology (from Greek , archaiologia – , arkhaīos, "ancient"; and , -logiā, "-logy"), is the study of human society, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes (the archaeological record). Because archaeology employs a wide range of different procedures, it can be considered to be both a science and a humanity, and in the United States it is thought of as a branch of anthropology, although in Europe it is viewed as a separate discipline.
List of archaeological periods
List of archaeological sites sorted by country
List of archaeologists
List of Russian archaeologists
List of prominent paleoethnobotanists
Archaeoacoustics
Archaeoastronomy
Archaeobiology
Archaeology of religion and ritual
Area of archaeological potential
Biblical archaeology
Dating methodology (archaeology)
Dump digging
GIS in archaeology
Graduate Programs in Archaeology
Grave robbing
Harris matrix
Historical Digging
Intellectual property issues in cultural heritage (IPinCH)
Kite aerial photography
Lost cities
Palaeoarchaeology
Virtual artifact
Xenoarchaeology
Archaeology (magazine)
C. U. Larsen - Sites and Monuments (1992)
Colin Renfrew & Paul Bahn - Archaeology: theories, methods and practice 2nd edition (1996)
David Hurst Thomas - Archaeology 3rd. edition (1998)
Glyn Daniel - A Short History of Archaeology (1991)
International Journal of South American Archaeology - IJSA (magazine)
Internet Archaeology e-journal
Kevin Greene - Introduction to Archaeology (1983)
Lewis Binford - New Perspectives in Archaeology (1968) ISBN 0-202-33022-2
Robert J. Sharer & Wendy Ashmore - Archaeology: Discovering our Past 2nd edition (1993)
Thomas Hester, Harry Shafer, and Kenneth L. Feder - Field Methods in Archaeology 7th edition (1997)
Alison Wylie - Thinking From Things: Essays in the Philosophy of Archaeology, University of California Press, Berkeley CA, 2002
Smekalova T. N., Voss O., Smekalov S. L. "Magnetic Surveying in Archaeology. More than 10 years of using the Overhauser GSM-19 gradiometer", Wormianum 2008.
Bruce Trigger - "A History of Archaeological Thought" 2nd. edition (2007)
Ian Hodder & Scott Hutson - "Reading the Past" 3rd. edition (2003)
Adrian Praetzellis - "Death by Theory", AltaMira Press (2000). ISBN 0-7425-0359-3 / 9780742503595
Archaeology Daily News
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Great Archaeology
Archaeological news updated daily
Council for British Archaeology
Fasti Online - an online database of archaeological sites
Kite Aerial Photographers - Archaeology
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The Archaeological Institute of America
The Society for American Archaeology
US Forest Service Volunteer program Passport in Time
The World Archaeological Congress
Archaeolog.org
The Archaeology Data Service - Open access online archive for UK and global archaeology
World Archaeology News - weekly update from BBC Radio archaeologist, Win Scutt
The Canadian Museum of Civilization - Archaeology
Estudio de Museología Rosario
Sri Lanka Archaeology - New Knowledge in Archaeology in Sri Lanka
Archaeology studies human history from the development of the first stone tools in eastern Africa 3.4 million years ago up until recent decades. It is of most importance for learning about prehistoric societies, when there are no written records for historians to study, making up over 99% of total human history, from the Palaeolithic until the advent of literacy in any given society. Archaeology has various different goals, which range from studying human evolution to cultural evolution and understanding culture history.
The discipline involves surveyance, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. It draws upon anthropology, history, art history, classics, ethnology, geography, geology, linguistics, physics, information sciences, chemistry, statistics, paleoecology, paleontology, paleozoology, paleoethnobotany, and paleobotany.
Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a discipline practiced across the world. Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including maritime archaeology, feminist archaeology and archaeoastronomy, and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, ranging from dealing with pseudoarchaeology to the looting of artifacts and opposition to the excavation of human remains.
Purpose
The purpose of archaeology is to learn more about past societies and the development of the human race. Over 99% of the history of humanity has occurred within prehistoric cultures, who did not make use of writing, thereby not leaving written records about themselves that we can study today. Without such written sources, the only way to learn about prehistoric societies is to use archaeology. Many important developments in human history occurred during prehistory, including the evolution of humanity during the Palaeolithic period, when the hominins developed from the australopithecines through to the early homos in Africa and finally into modern Homo sapiens. Archaeology also sheds light on many of humanity's technological advances, for instance the ability to use fire, the development of stone tools, the discovery of metallurgy, the beginnings of religion and the creation of agriculture. Without archaeology, we would know nothing of these evolutionary and technological changes in humanity that pre-date writing.However, it is not only prehistoric, pre-literate cultures that can be studied using archaeology but historic, literate cultures as well, through the sub-discipline of historical archaeology. For many literate cultures, such as Ancient Greece and Mesopotamia, their surviving records are often incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such as the clergy or the bureaucracy of court or temple. The literacy even of aristocrats has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually a small fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own biases, such as sampling bias and differential preservation.
Theory
There is no one singular approach to archaeological theory that has been adhered to by all archaeologists. When archaeology developed in the late 19th century, the first approach to archaeological theory to be practiced was that of cultural-history archaeology, which held the goal of explaining why cultures changed and adapted rather than just highlighting the fact that they did, therefore emphasizing historical particularism. In the early 20th century, many archaeologists who studied past societies with direct continuing links to existing ones (such as those of Native Americans, Siberians, Mesoamericans etc.) followed the direct historical approach, compared the continuity between the past and contemporary ethnic and cultural groups. In the 1960s, an archaeological movement largely led by American archaeologists like Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery arose that rebelled against the established cultural-history archaeology. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with hypothesis testing and the scientific method very important parts of what became known as processual archaeology.
In the 1980s, a new postmodern movement arose led by the British archaeologists Michael Shanks, Christopher Tilley, Daniel Miller, and Ian Hodder, which has become known as post-processual archaeology. It questioned processualism's appeals to scientific positivism and impartiality, and emphasised the importance of a more self-critical theoretical reflexivity. However, this approach has been criticized by processualists as lacking scientific rigor, and the validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under debate. Meanwhile, another theory, known as historical processualism has emerged seeking to incorporate a focus on process and post-processual archaeology's emphasis of reflexivity and history.
Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including neo-Darwinian evolutionary thought, phenomenology, postmodernism, agency theory, cognitive science, Functionalism, gender-based and Feminist archaeology, and Systems theory.
Methods
An archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which employs its own variety of methods. Before any practical work can begin however, a clear objective as to what the archaeologists are looking to achieve must be agreed upon. This done, a site is surveyed to find out as much as possible about it and the surrounding area. Second, an excavation may take place to uncover any archaeological features buried under the ground. And, third, the data collected from the excavation is studied and evaluated in an attempt to achieve the original research objectives of the archaeologists. It is then considered good practice for the information to be published so that it is available to other archaeologists and historians, although this is sometimes neglected.
Survey
A modern archaeological project often begins with a survey. Regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and middens, within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods.Survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. Gordon Willey pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the Viru Valley of coastal Peru, and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later.
Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ sampling methods.) As with other forms of non-destructive archaeology, survey avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as settlement patterns and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into maps, which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution.
The simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as augers, corers, and shovel test pits. If no materials are found, the area surveyed is deemed sterile.
Aerial survey is conducted using cameras attached to airplanes, balloons, or even Kites. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. Plants growing above a buried man made structure, such as a stone wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as middens) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening grain, which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial photographs taken at different times of day will help show the outlines of structures by changes in shadows. Aerial survey also employs infrared, ground-penetrating radar wavelengths, LiDAR and thermography.
Geophysical survey can be the most effective way to see beneath the ground. Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron artifacts, kilns, some types of stone structures, and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the electrical resistivity of the soil are also widely used. Archaeological features whose electrical resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and mapped. Some archaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick) have higher resistivity than typical soils, while others (such as organic deposits or unfired clay) tend to have lower resistivity.
Although some archaeologists consider the use of metal detectors to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on English Civil War battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a 19th century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to archaeology where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the Portable Antiquities Scheme.
Regional survey in underwater archaeology uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine magnetometer, side-scan sonar, or sub-bottom sonar.
Excavation
Archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context.
Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their provenance or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see Primary Laws of Archaeology). Likewise, their association, or relationship with nearby objects and features, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce which artifacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artifacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures.
Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, in relative terms. Also, as a destructive process, it carries ethical concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Again the percentage of a site excavated depends greatly on the country and "method statement" issued. In places 90% excavation is common. Sampling is even more important in excavation than in survey. It is common for large mechanical equipment, such as backhoes (JCBs), to be used in excavation, especially to remove the topsoil (overburden), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent.
The next task is to form a site plan and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural subsoil are normally excavated in portions to produce a visible archaeological section for recording. A feature, for example a pit or a ditch, consists of two parts: the cut and the fill. The cut describes the edge of the feature, where the feature meets the natural soil. It is the feature's boundary. The fill is what the feature is filled with, and will often appear quite distinct from the natural soil. The cut and fill are given consecutive numbers for recording purposes. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the context of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site.
Analysis
Once artifacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them, to gain as much data as possible. This process is known as post-excavation analysis, and is usually the most time-consuming part of the archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for the final excavation reports on major sites to take years to be published.
At its most basic, the artifacts found are cleaned, cataloged and compared to published collections, to classify them typologically and to identify other sites with similar artifact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through archaeological science, meaning that artifacts can be dated and their compositions examined. The bones, plants and pollen collected from a site can all be analyzed (using the techniques of zooarchaeology, paleoethnobotany, and palynology), while any texts can usually be deciphered.
These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known and therefore contribute greatly to the understanding of a site.
Virtual archaeology
Some time around 1995 archaeologists started using computer graphics to build virtual 3D models of sites such as the throne room of an ancient Assyrian palace or ancient Rome. This is done by collecting normal photographs and using computer graphics to build the virtual 3D model. In more general terms, computers can be used to recreate the environment and conditions of the past, such as objects, buildings, landscapes and even ancient battles. Computer simulation can be used to simulate the living conditions of an ancient community and to see how it would have reacted to various scenarios (such as how much food to grow, how many animals to slaughter, etc.) Computer-built topographical models have been combined with astronomical calculations to verify whether or not certain structures (such as pillars) were aligned with astronomical events such as the sun's position at a solstice.
Academic sub-disciplines
As with most academic disciplines, there are a very large number of archaeological sub-disciplines characterised by a specific method or type of material (e.g., lithic analysis, music, archaeobotany), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. Near Eastern archaeology, Islamic archaeology, Medieval archaeology), other thematic concern (e.g. maritime archaeology, landscape archaeology, battlefield archaeology), or a specific archaeological culture or civilisation (e.g. Egyptology, Indology, Sinology).
Historical archaeology
Historical archaeology is the study of cultures with some form of writing.In England, archaeologists have uncovered the long-lost layouts of medieval villages abandoned after the crises of the 14th century and the equally lost layouts of 17th century parterre gardens swept away by a change in fashion. In downtown New York City archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of the African burial ground.
Ethnoarchaeology
Ethnoarchaeology is the archaeological study of living people. The approach gained notoriety during the emphasis on middle range theory that was a feature of the processual movement of the 1960s. Early ethnoarchaeological research focused on hunting and gathering or foraging societies. Ethnoarchaeology continues to be a vibrant component of post-processual and other current archaeological approaches. Ethnoarchaeology is the use of ethnography to increase and improve analogs, which are then used as analogies to interpret the archaeological record. In short, ethnoarchaeology is the application of ethnography to archaeology.
Experimental archaeology
Experimental archaeology represents the application of the experimental method to develop more highly controlled observations of processes that create and impact the archaeological record. In the context of the logical positivism of processualism with its goals of improving the scientific rigor of archaeological epistemologies the experimental method gained importance. Experimental techniques remain a crucial component to improving the inferential frameworks for interpreting the archaeological record.
Archaeometry
Archaeometry is a field of study that aims to systematize archaeological measurement. It emphasizes the application of analytical techniques from physics, chemistry, and engineering. It is a lively field of research that frequently focuses on the definition of the chemical composition of archaeological remains for source analysis. Archaeometry also investigates different spatial characteristics of features, employing such methods as space syntax and geodesy, which can be analyzed using computer-based geographic information system technologies. A relatively nascent subfield is that of archaeological materials, designed to enhance understanding of prehistoric and non-industrial culture through scientific analysis of the structure and properties of materials associated with human activity.
Cultural resources management
While archaeology can be done as a pure science, it can also be an applied science, namely the study of archaeological sites that are threatened by development. In such cases, archaeology is a subsidiary activity within Cultural resources management (CRM), also called heritage management in the United Kingdom. Today, CRM accounts for most of the archaeological research done in the United States and much of that in western Europe as well. In the US, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966, and most taxpayers, scholars, and politicians believe that CRM has helped preserve much of that nation's history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, the NHPA mandates that projects on federal land or involving federal funds or permits consider the effects of the project on each archaeological site.
The application of CRM in the United Kingdom is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990 PPG 16 has required planners to consider archaeology as a material consideration in determining applications for new development. As a result, numerous archaeological organisations undertake mitigation work in advance of (or during) construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the developer's expense.
In England, ultimate responsibility of care for the historic environment rests with the Department for Culture, Media and Sport in association with English Heritage. In Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, the same responsibilities lie with Historic Scotland, Cadw and the Northern Ireland Environment Agency respectively.
Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of cultural sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves at least a cursory examination to determine whether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavation indicates the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely. CRM is a thriving entity, especially in the United States and Europe where archaeologists from private companies and all levels of government engage in the practice of their discipline.
Cultural resources management has, however, been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget. It is not unheard-of for the agency responsible for the construction to simply choose the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face considerable time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the time that might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavor. Compounding the time pressure is the vetting process of site reports that are required (in the US) to be submitted by CRM firms to the appropriate State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO). From the SHPO's perspective there is to be no difference between a report submitted by a CRM firm operating under a deadline, and a multi-year academic project. The end result is that for a Cultural Resource Management archaeologist to be successful, they must be able to produce academic quality documents at a corporate world pace.
The annual ratio of open academic archaeology positions (inclusive of Post-Doc, temporary, and non tenure track appointments) to the annual number of archaeology MA/MSc and PhD students is grossly disproportionate. This dearth of academic positions causes a predictable excess of well educated individuals who join the ranks of the following year's crop of non-academically employed archaeologists. Cultural Resource Management, once considered an intellectual backwater for individuals with "strong backs and weak minds" has reaped the benefit of this massive pool of well educated professionals. This results in CRM offices increasingly staffed by advance degreed individuals with a track record of producing scholarly articles but who have the notches on their trowels to show they have been in the trenches as a shovelbum.
History of archaeology
Flavio Biondo, an Italian Renaissance humanist historian, created a systematic and documented guide to the ruins and topography of ancient Rome in the early 15th century for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology. Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli or Cyriacus of Ancona (31 July 1391 — 1453/55) was a restlessly itinerant Italian humanist who came from a prominent family of merchants in Ancona. Ciriaco traveled all around the Eastern Mediterranean, noting down his archaeological discoveries in his day-book, Commentaria, that eventually filled six volumes. He has been called father of archaeology.After that, modern archaeology has its origins in the antiquarianism of Europe in the mid-19th century, where it developed soon after the scientific advancement of geology, which had shown that the Earth was billions rather than thousands of years old, as was then commonly believed. Soon after this, in 1859, Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published, outlining his theory of evolution, eventually leading scientists to believe that humanity was in fact millions of years old, thereby providing a time limit within which the burgeoning archaeological movement could study. Meanwhile, in 1836 the Danish historian Christian Jürgensen Thomsen published A Ledetraad til Nordisk Oldkyndighed (Guideline to Scandinavian Antiquity) translated into English in 1848, in which he proposed the idea that collections of European artifacts from prehistory could be divided up into a three age system: the Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.Thomsen was not the first scholar to propose the three age system (that idea dated back to Greek and Roman thinkers), but he was the first to apply these categories to material culture, and with that innovation came significant advances in the concept of seriation, or stylistic changes through time.
It was these three concepts of human antiquity, evolution and the Three-Age system that are often thought of as the building blocks for modern archaeology.
Soon the early archaeologists began to investigate various areas around the world, with the study of ancient Aegean civilization being stimulated by the excavations of Heinrich Schliemann at Troy, and of Arthur Evans at Crete, whilst John Lloyd Stephens was a pivotal figure in the rediscovery of Maya civilization throughout Central America. However, the methodologies employed by these archaeologists were highly flawed by today's standards, often having a eurocentric bias, and many early European archaeologists often relied on anthropological and ethnographic accounts provided by the likes of Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan, thereby comparing contemporary "savage" peoples like the Native Americans with the historical peoples of Europe who lived in similar societies. Soon the new discipline of archaeology spread to North America, where it was taken up by figures like Samuel Haven and William Henry Holmes, who excavated ancient Native American monuments.
Further advancements in archaeological field methodology arose in the late 19th century. One of the pioneering figures in this was Augustus Pitt Rivers, who meticulously excavated on Cranborne Chase in southern England, emphasising that it was not only items of beauty or value that should be recorded but mundane items as well; he therefore helped to differentiate archaeology from antiquarianism. Other important archaeologists who further refined the discipline in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were Flinders Petrie (who excavated in Egypt and Palestine), Sir Mortimer Wheeler (India), Dorothy Garrod (the Middle East), Max Uhle (Peru) and Alfred Kidder (Mexico). Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued throughout the 20th century, in particular in the 1960s, when maritime archaeology was popularised by George Bass, urban archaeology became more prevalent with redevelopment in many European cities, and rescue archaeology was developed as a result of increasing commercial development.
Archaeology has been portrayed in the mainstream media in sensational ways. This has its advantages and disadvantages. Many practitioners point to the childhood excitement of Indiana Jones films as the inspiration for them to enter the field. Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support, the question of exactly who they are doing their work for is often discussed.
Current issues and controversy
Public archaeology
Motivated by a desire to halt looting, curb pseudoarchaeology, and to help preserve archaeological sites through education and fostering public appreciation for the importance of archaeological heritage, archaeologists are mounting public-outreach campaigns. They seek to stop looting by combatting people who illegally take artifacts from protected sites, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting. Common methods of public outreach include press releases, and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation by professional archaeologists. Public appreciation of the significance of archaeology and archaeological sites often leads to improved protection from encroaching development or other threats.One audience for archaeologists' work is the public. They increasingly realize that their work can benefit non-academic and non-archaeological audiences, and that they have a responsibility to educate and inform the public about archaeology. Local heritage awareness is aimed at increasing civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects, and better public presentations of archaeological sites and knowledge. The U.S.Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service(USFS) operates a volunteer archaeology and historic preservation program called the Passport in Time (PIT). Volunteers work with professional USFS archaeologists and historians on national forests throughout the U.S. Volunteers are involved in all aspects of professional archaeology under expert supervision.
In the UK, popular archaeology programs such as Time Team and Meet the Ancestors have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest. Where possible, archaeologists now make more provisions for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did, and many local archaeological organizations operate within the Community archaeology framework to expand public involvement in smaller-scale, more local projects. Archaeological excavation, however, is best undertaken by well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately. Often this requires observing the necessary health and safety and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern building site with tight deadlines. Certain charities and local government bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project. There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial training excavations and archaeological holiday tours.
Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies, which is one reason why Community archaeology projects are starting to become more common. Often archaeologists are assisted by the public in the locating of archaeological sites, which professional archaeologists have neither the funding, nor the time to do.
Pseudoarchaeology
Pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted and scientific archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of processual archaeology, or the specific critiques of it contained in post-processualism.
An example of this type is the writing of Erich von Däniken. His 1968 book, Chariots of the Gods?, together with many subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilisation on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilisations. This theory, known as palaeocontact theory, or Ancient astronaut theory, is not exclusively Däniken's, nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind.
Looting
Looting of archaeological sites is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs were looted during antiquity. Archaeology stimulates interest in ancient objects, and people in search of artifacts or treasure cause damage to archaeological sites. The commercial and academic demand for artifacts unfortunately contributes directly to the illicit antiquities trade. Smuggling of antiquities abroad to private collectors has caused great cultural and economic damage in many countries whose governments lack the resources and or the will to deter it. Looters damage and destroy archaeological sites, denying future generations information about their ethnic and cultural heritage. Indigenous peoples especially lose access to and control over their 'cultural resources', ultimately denying them the opportunity to know their past.
Popular consciousness often associates looting with poor Third World countries, but this is a false assumption. A lack of financial resources and political will are chronic worldwide problems inhibiting more effective protection of archaeological sites. Many Native American Indians today, such as Vine Deloria, Jr., consider any removal of cultural artifacts from a Native American Indian site to be theft, and much of professional archaeology as academic looting.
In 1937 W. F. Hodge the Director of the Southwest Museum in Los Angeles CA, released a statement that the museum would no longer purchase or accept collections from looted contexts. The first conviction of the transport of artifacts illegally removed from private property under the Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA; Public Law 96-95; 93 Statute 721; ) was in 1992 in the State of Indiana.
Descendant peoples
In the United States, examples such as the case of Kennewick Man have illustrated the tensions between Native Americans and archaeologists, which can be summarized as a conflict between a need to remain respectful toward sacred burial sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artifacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present.As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of indigenous peoples likely to be descended from those under study.
Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study.
While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession.
Repatriation
:See Repatriation and reburial of human remains A new trend in the heated controversy between First Nations groups and scientists is the repatriation of native artifacts to the original descendants. An example of this occurred June 21, 2005, when community members and elders from a number of the 10 Algonquian nations in the Ottawa area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation near Maniwaki, Quebec, to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods — some dating back 6,000 years. It was not determined, however, if the remains were directly related to the Algonquin people who now inhabit the region. The remains may be of Iroquoian ancestry, since Iroquoian people inhabited the area before the Algonquin. Moreover, the oldest of these remains might have no relation at all to the Algonquin or Iroquois, and belong to an earlier culture who previously inhabited the area.The remains and artifacts, including jewelry, tools and weapons, were originally excavated from various sites in the Ottawa Valley, including Morrison and the Allumette Islands. They had been part of the Canadian Museum of Civilization's research collection for decades, some since the late 19th century. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional redcedar and birchbark boxes lined with redcedar chips, muskrat and beaver pelts.
Now, an inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 80 boxes of various sizes are buried, no further scientific study is possible. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement.
Kennewick Man is another repatriation candidate that has been the source of heated debate.
See also
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Category:Archaeology Category:Anthropology Category:Auxiliary sciences of history Category:Greek loanwords
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