A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations or are sewers. Other uses include routing power or telecommunication cables, some are to permit wildlife such as European badgers to cross highways. Secret tunnels have given entrance to or escape from an area, such as the Cu Chi Tunnels or the smuggling tunnels in the Gaza Strip which connect it to Egypt. Some tunnels are not for transport at all but rather, are fortifications, for example Mittelwerk and Cheyenne Mountain.
In the United Kingdom, a pedestrian tunnel or other underpass beneath a road is called a underpass subway. In the United States that term now means an underground rapid transit system.
The central part of a rapid transit network is usually built in tunnels. Rail station platforms may be connected by pedestrian tunnels or by foot bridges.
A tunnel project must start with a comprehensive investigation of ground conditions by collecting samples from boreholes and by other geophysical techniques. An informed choice can then be made of machinery and methods for excavation and ground support, which will reduce the risk of encountering unforeseen ground conditions. In planning the route the horizontal and vertical alignments will make use of the best ground and water conditions.
In some cases conventional desk and site studies yield insufficient information to assess such factors as the blocky nature of rocks, the exact location of fault zones, or the stand-up times of softer ground. This may be a particular concern in large diameter tunnels. To give more information a pilot tunnel, or drift, may be driven ahead of the main drive. This smaller diameter tunnel will be easier to support should unexpected conditions be met, and will be incorporated in the final tunnel. Alternatively, horizontal boreholes may sometimes be drilled ahead of the advancing tunnel face.
Tunnels are dug in types of materials varying from soft clay to hard rock. The method of tunnel construction depends on such factors as the ground conditions, the ground water conditions, the length and diameter of the tunnel drive, the depth of the tunnel, the logistics of supporting the tunnel excavation, the final use and shape of the tunnel and appropriate risk management.
There are three basic types of tunnel construction in common use:
Cut-and-cover is a simple method of construction for shallow tunnels where a trench is excavated and roofed over with an overhead support system strong enough to carry the load of what is to be built above the tunnel. Two basic forms of cut-and-cover tunnelling are available:
Shallow tunnels are often of the cut-and-cover type (if under water, of the immersed-tube type), while deep tunnels are excavated, often using a tunnelling shield. For intermediate levels, both methods are possible.
Large cut-and-cover boxes are often used for underground metro stations, such as Canary Wharf tube station in London. This construction form generally has two levels, which allows economical arrangements for ticket hall, station platforms, passenger access and emergency egress, ventilation and smoke control, staff rooms, and equipment rooms. The interior of Canary Wharf station has been likened to an underground cathedral, owing to the sheer size of the excavation. This contrasts with most traditional stations on London Underground, where bored tunnels were used for stations and passenger access.
The clay-kicker lies on a plank at a 45-degree angle away from the working face, and inserts a tool with a cup-like rounded end with his feet. Turning the tool with his hands, he extracts a section of soil, which is then placed on the waste extract.
Regularly used in Victorian civil engineering, the methods found favour in the renewal of the United Kingdom's then ancient sewerage systems, by not having to remove all property or infrastructure to create an effective small tunnel system. During the First World War, the system was successfully deployed by the Royal Engineer tunnelling companies to deploy large military mines beneath enemy German Empire lines. The method was virtually silent not susceptible to listening methods of detection.
Tunnel boring machines (TBMs) and associated back-up systems are used to highly automate the entire tunneling process, reducing tunneling costs.
Tunnel boring in certain predominantly urban applications, is viewed as quick and cost effective alternative to laying surface rails and roads. Expensive compulsory purchase of buildings and land with potentially lengthy planning inquiries is eliminated.
There are a variety of TBMs that can operate in a variety of conditions, from hard rock to soft water-bearing ground. Some types of TBMs, bentonite slurry and earth-pressure balance machines, have pressurised compartments at the front end, allowing them to be used in difficult conditions below the water table. This pressurizes the ground ahead of the TBM cutter head to balance the water pressure. The operators work in normal air pressure behind the pressurised compartment, but may occasionally have to enter that compartment to renew or repair the cutters. This requires special precautions, such as local ground treatment or halting the TBM at a position free from water. Despite these difficulties, TBMs are now preferred to the older method of tunneling in compressed air, with an air lock/decompression chamber some way back from the TBM, which required operators to work in high pressure and go through decompression procedures at the end of their shifts, much like divers.
In February 2010, Aker Wirth delivered a TBM to Switzerland, for the expansion of Linth Limmern Power Plant in Switzerland. The borehole has a diameter of . The TBM used for digging the Gotthard Base Tunnel, in Switzerland, has a diameter of about . A larger TBM was built to bore the Green Heart Tunnel (Dutch: Tunnel Groene Hart) as part of the HSL-Zuid in the Netherlands, with a diameter of . This in turn was superseded by the Madrid M30 ringroad, Spain, and the Chong Ming tunnels in Shanghai, China. All of these machines were built at least partly by Herrenknecht.
By special monitoring the NATM method is very flexible, even at surprising changes of the geomechanical rock consistency during the tunneling work. The measured rock properties lead to appropriate tools for tunnel strengthening. In the last decades also soft ground excavations up to became usual.
There are also several approaches to underwater tunnels, the two most common being bored tunnels or immersed tubes. Submerged floating tunnels are another approach that has not been constructed.
Bridges usually require a larger footprint on each shore than tunnels. There are actually more codes to follow with bridges than with tunnels. In areas with expensive real estate, such as Manhattan and urban Hong Kong, this is a strong factor in tunnels' favor. Boston's Big Dig project replaced elevated roadways with a tunnel system to increase traffic capacity, hide traffic, reclaim land, redecorate, and reunite the city with the waterfront.
The 1934 Queensway Road Tunnel under the River Mersey at Liverpool, was chosen over a massively high bridge for defence reasons. It was feared aircraft could destroy a bridge in times of war. Maintenance costs of a massive bridge to allow the world's largest ships navigate under was considered higher than a tunnel. Similar conclusions were met for the 1971 Kingsway Tunnel under the River Mersey.
Examples of water-crossing tunnels built instead of bridges include the Holland Tunnel and Lincoln Tunnel between New Jersey and Manhattan in New York City, the Queens-Midtown Tunnel between Manhattan and the borough of Queens on Long Island, and the Elizabeth River tunnels between Norfolk and Portsmouth, Virginia, the 1934 River Mersey road Queensway Tunnel and the Western Scheldt Tunnel, Zeeland, Netherlands.
Other reasons for choosing a tunnel instead of a bridge include avoiding difficulties with tides, weather and shipping during construction (as in the Channel Tunnel), aesthetic reasons (preserving the above-ground view, landscape, and scenery), and also for weight capacity reasons (it may be more feasible to build a tunnel than a sufficiently strong bridge).
Some water crossings are a mixture of bridges and tunnels, such as the Denmark to Sweden link and the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel in the eastern United States.
There are particular hazards with tunnels, especially from vehicle fires when combustion gases can asphyxiate users, as happened at the Gotthard Road Tunnel in Switzerland in 2001. One of the worst railway disasters ever, the Balvano train disaster, was caused by a train stalling in the Armi tunnel in Italy in 1944, killing 426 passengers.
The Lion Rock Tunnel, built in the mid-1960s connecting New Kowloon and Sha Tin within the territory of Hong Kong, carries a motorway and an aqueduct.
A recent double-decker tunnel with both decks for motor vehicles is the Fuxing Road Tunnel in Shanghai, China. Cars travel on the two-lane upper deck and heavier vehicles on the single-lane lower.
Multipurpose tunnel are tunnels that have more than one purpose. The SMART Tunnel in Malaysia is the first multipurpose tunnel in the world, as it is used both to control traffic and flood in Kuala Lumpur.
Over-bridges can sometimes be built by covering a road or river or railway with brick or steel arches, and then leveling the surface with earth. In railway parlance, a surface-level track which has been built or covered over is normally called a covered way.
Snow sheds are a kind of artificial tunnel built to protect a railway from avalanches of snow. Similarly the Stanwell Park, New South Wales steel tunnel, on the South Coast railway line, protects the line from rockfalls.
Common utility ducts are man-made tunnels created to carry two or more utility lines underground. Through co-location of different utilities in one tunnel, organizations are able to reduce the costs of building and maintaining utilities.
Owing to the enclosed space of a tunnel, fires can have very serious effects on users. The main dangers are gas and smoke production, with low concentrations of carbon monoxide being highly toxic. Fires killed 11 people in the Gotthard tunnel fire of 2001 for example, all of the victims succumbing to smoke and gas inhalation. Over 400 passengers died in the Balvano train disaster in Italy in 1944, when the locomotive halted in a long tunnel. Carbon monoxide poisoning was the main cause of the horrifying death rate.
The Delaware Aqueduct in New York USA is the longest tunnel, of any type, in the world at . It is drilled through solid rock. The Gotthard Base Tunnel is the longest rail tunnel in the world at . It will be totally completed in 2017. The Seikan Tunnel in Japan was the longest rail tunnel in the world at , of which is under the sea. The Channel Tunnel between France and the United Kingdom under the English Channel is the second-longest, with a total length of , of which is under the sea. The Lötschberg Base Tunnel opened in June 2007 in Switzerland was the longest land rail tunnel, with a total of . The Lærdal Tunnel in Norway from Lærdal to Aurland is the world's longest road tunnel, intended for cars and similar vehicles, at . The Zhongnanshan Tunnel in People's Republic of China opened in January 2007 is the world's second longest highway tunnel and the longest road tunnel in Asia, at . The longest canal tunnel is the Rove Tunnel in France, over long.
The 1836 Lime Street two track 1 mile tunnel from Edge Hill to Lime Street in Liverpool was totally removed, apart from a short 50 metre section at Edge Hill. Four tracks were required. The tunnel was converted into a very deep 4 track open cutting. However, short larger 4 track tunnels were left in some parts of the run. Train services were not interrupted as the work progressed. Photos of the work in progress: There are other occurrences of tunnels being replaced by open cuts, for example, the Auburn Tunnel.
Category:Articles with inconsistent citation formats *Tunnels Category:Bridges *Tunnels
ar:نفق an:Túnel be:Тунэль be-x-old:Тунэль br:Riboul bg:Тунел ca:Túnel cs:Tunel da:Tunnel de:Tunnel et:Tunnel el:Σήραγγα es:Túnel eo:Tunelo eu:Tunel fa:تونل fr:Tunnel ga:Tollán gl:Túnel ko:터널 hr:Tunel io:Tunelo id:Terowongan is:Jarðgöng it:Galleria (ingegneria) he:מנהרה kk:Туннель la:Cuniculus (aedificium) lv:Tunelis lb:Tunnel lt:Tunelis hu:Alagút mk:Тунел ms:Terowong mn:Туннел nl:Tunnel ja:トンネル no:Tunnel nn:Tunnel oc:Tunèl mhr:Тоннель pl:Tunel (budownictwo) pt:Túnel ro:Tunel ru:Тоннель scn:Jallirìa (tùnnilli) simple:Tunnel sk:Tunel sl:Predor sr:Тунел sh:Tunel fi:Tunneli sv:Tunnel te:సొరంగం th:อุโมงค์ tr:Tünel uk:Тунель vi:Hầm (giao thông) zh:隧道This text is licensed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-SA License. This text was originally published on Wikipedia and was developed by the Wikipedia community.
Coordinates | 06°07′28″N81°07′21″N |
---|---|
name | The Dining Rooms |
background | group_or_band |
origin | Milan, Italy |
genre | DowntempoChilloutElectronica |
years active | 1998–present |
label | Schema Records |
website | http://www.thediningrooms.org |
current members | Stefano GhittoniCesare Malfatti |
notable instruments | }} |
The Dining Rooms is a band based in Milan, Italy. Its music does not fall under a specific genre, blending ambient, electronic, and jazz. The Dining Rooms are Stefano Ghittoni and Cesare Malfatti.
Stefano Ghittoni, resident DJ at Magazzini Generali in Milan from 1995 till 2007, spurred the initial creative process behind the duo's musical direction in 1998. Cesare Malfatti, on the other hand, is a founding member of the post-blues project 'La Crus'. Both Stefano and Cesare come from the punk/new wave scene and they have played in several underground bands in earlier years.
In early 1999, through the electronica label Milano2000, The Dining Rooms release their debut full-length album: "Subterranean Modern Volume 1". The record is characterized by hip hop/funk-inspired rhythms flowing alongside bluesy guitar textures and melancholic, minor-key atmospheric elements.
As a side project to this record, Stefano Ghittoni works with videomaker Maria Arena on the ''Ambient Blues Caffe'' project, an ambient sonorization project for turntables and video performed all over Italy and Europe.
The second Dining Rooms album, "Numero Deux", which features a multimedia section with videos by Maria Arena (one of which is dedicated to J.L.Godard), is released in January 2001 and picks up the stylistic streak of "Subterranean Modern Volume 1", enriching its sound with the addition of jazz atmospheres and introducing vocal parts performed by the minimal-soul duo "Sepiatone" (Hugo Race and Marta Collica). In summer 2001 "Numero Deux" was also released in the US, Japan and Germany through Guidance Recordings.
To promote the new record, The Dining Rooms have developed and enriched the audio-visual experience of the ''Ambient Blues Caffe'', giving birth to the new set named 'FILM'. The new live performance includes DJ and live sets by Stefano Ghittoni and Cesare Malfatti (using computers, samplers and turntables) and the enhanced visual experience provided by Maria Arena.
"Tre", was released in spring 2003 on Schema Records. The record delves further into the themes of the two preceding releases, adding faster rhythms and a more focused production.
The record also features important vocal contributions by Anna Clementi and Sean Martin and production assistantship by Soulpatrol, among others. Like "Numero Deux", "Tre" was released in the US, Japan and Germany through Guidance Recordings.
In early 2004, "Versioni Particolari" hits the shelves. It is an album of remixes previously released on 12" vinyls, new versions, and unreleased Dining Rooms goodies, and features work on Dining Rooms tracks done by heavyweight producers like Nicola Conte, Soulpatrol and The Cinematic Orchestra, among others.
The Dining Rooms live show was then further developed into a full live set, taking advantage of a five-piece band and enriched, as always, by Maria Arena's evocative video work. The live experience and the idea to work on songwriting become the conceptual and stylistic basis for The Dining Rooms' fourth studio album.
"Experiments In Ambient Soul" has been released through Schema in late spring 2005. E.I.A.S. is a journey into modern funk and jazz. It features a collection of inspired and soulful tracks with contributions by Don Freeman, Amraah 8, Sean Martin, Hugo Race and Marta Collica.
In the spring of 2006 the second chapter of Versioni Particolari is released. "Versioni Particolari 2" is a collection of remixes and unreleased versions taken from 4 vinyl singles that followed the album release of "Experiments in Ambient Soul"(2005).
The songs contained in "E.I.A.S" here receive new, vital energy courtesy of some of the most interesting music producer of these contemporary times while the two unreleased tracks add further deepness to the producing standards of the The Dining Rooms.
One year after, spring 2007 will see the release of their fifth album "Ink". Sounding almost as a concept album, it can be considered as the trait-d'union between the production style of "Experiments In Ambient Soul", live instrumentation and vocals delivering a round groove, with the cinematic, ethereal atmospheres characterizing the sound of "Numero Deux" and "Tre". This work features new remarkable collaborations by international artists such as Dodo N'kishi (Mouse on Mars) from Africa via Germany; Georgeanne Kalweit, from U.S.A. via Milan, and Tomaz Di Cunto, from Brazil.
In the autumn of 2008 "Other Ink" is released. It's the remix version of "Ink" and remixers list include The Cinematic Orchestra, Populous, Christian Prommer and Skwerl, among others. The remixes will be enriched by a new version of Ink , recorded live at Teatro I during Promise(musical esistenzialista), and by "Exit a New York", featuring CharlElie Couture and originally released only for the French market.
In the spring of 2009, to celebrate ten years of The Dining Rooms, Schema Records releases "Christian Prommer's Drumlesson plays The Dining Rooms: The Jazz Thing". It's a selection of Tdr songs produced and rearranged by Christian Prommer's Drumlesson. Tracklist includes Hear us now, Dreamy smiles, M. Dupont, Thin ice, Prigionieri del deserto, Thank you?, Destination moon, No problem, Tunnel, Milano calibro 9, Afrolicious, Ink and Pure and easy.
This text is licensed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-SA License. This text was originally published on Wikipedia and was developed by the Wikipedia community.
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