Coordinates	35°27′″N139°38′″N
{{infobox philosopher | region	Western Philosophers | era Medieval Philosophy | color #B0C4DE | image_name JohnDunsScotus.jpg | caption John Duns Scotus| name John Duns Scotus
birth date	c. 1265
birth place	Duns, Berwickshire, Scotland
death date	8 November 1308
death place	Cologne, Germany
school tradition	Scholasticism, Founder of Scotism | main_interests Metaphysics, Theology, Logic, Epistemology, Ethics | influences Aristotle, St. Augustine, Avicenna, Boethius, Anselm, Thomas Aquinas, Henry of Ghent | influenced Popes Alexander VI, Sixtus IV, William of Ockham, Martin Luther, René Descartes, Leibniz, Heidegger, C. S. Peirce, Deleuze, Olavo de Carvalho | notable_ideas Univocity of being, Haecceity as a principle of individuation, Immaculate conception of Virgin Mary | }}

Blessed John ''(Johannes)'' Duns Scotus, O.F.M. (c. 1265 – November 8, 1308) was one of the more important theologians and philosophers of the High Middle Ages. He was nicknamed ''Doctor Subtilis'' for his penetrating and subtle manner of thought.

Scotus has had considerable influence on Roman Catholic thought. The doctrines for which he is best known are the "univocity of being," that existence is the most abstract concept we have, applicable to everything that exists; the formal distinction, a way of distinguishing between different aspects of the same thing; and the idea of haecceity, the property supposed to be in each individual thing that makes it an individual. Scotus also developed a complex argument for the existence of God, and argued for the Immaculate conception of Mary.

Not to be confused with the earlier Irish theologian and philosopher Johannes Scotus Eriugena.

Life

Little is known of Scotus' life. He was probably born in 1265, possibly at Duns, in Berwickshire, Scotland, but also possibly in Ireland or in northern England. In 1291 he was ordained as a priest in Northampton, England. A note in Codex 66 of Merton College, Oxford, records that Scotus "flourished at Cambridge, Oxford and Paris. He began lecturing on Peter Lombard's Sentences at the prestigious University of Paris in the Autumn of 1302. Later in that academic year, however, he was expelled from the University of Paris for siding with then Pope Boniface VIII in his feud with Philip the Fair of France, over the taxation of church property.

Scotus was back in Paris before the end of 1304, probably returning in May. He continued lecturing there until, for reasons which are still mysterious, he was dispatched to the Franciscan ''studium'' at Cologne, probably in October 1307. He died there in 1308; the date of his death is traditionally given as 8 November.

He is buried in the Church of the Franciscans in Cologne. His sarcophagus bears the Latin inscription: ''Scotia me genuit. Anglia me suscepit. Gallia me docuit. Colonia me tenet.'' (trans. "Scotland brought me forth. England sustained me. France taught me. Cologne holds me.") He was beatified by Pope John Paul II on March 20, 1993. According to an old tradition, Scotus was buried alive following his lapse into a coma.

Reputation and influence

Scotus is considered one of the most important Franciscan theologians and was the founder of Scotism, a special form of Scholasticism. He came out of the Old Franciscan School, to which Haymo of Faversham (d. 1244), Alexander of Hales (d. 1245), John of Rupella (d. 1245), William of Melitona (d. 1260), St. Bonaventure (d. 1274), Cardinal Matthew of Aquasparta (d. 1289), John Peckham, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1292), Richard of Middletown (d. about 1300), etc., belonged. He was known as "Doctor Subtilis" because of the subtle distinctions and nuances of his thinking. Later philosophers in the sixteenth century were less complimentary about his work, and accused him of sophistry. This led to his name, "dunce" (which developed from the name "Dunse" given to his followers in the 1500s) to become synonymous for "somebody who is incapable of scholarship".

Metaphysics

Realism

Scotus is generally considered to be a realist (as opposed to a nominalist) in that he treated universals as real. He attacks a position close to that later defended by Ockham, arguing that things have a common nature – for example the humanity common to both Socrates and Plato.

Univocity of Being

He followed Aristotle in asserting that the subject matter of metaphysics is "being qua being" (''ens inquantum ens''). Being in general (''ens in communi''), as a univocal notion, was for him the first object of the intellect. Metaphysics includes the study of the transcendentals, so called because they transcend the division of being into finite and infinite and the further division of finite being into the ten Aristotelian categories. Being itself is a transcendental, and so are the "attributes" of being — "one," "true," and "good" — which are coextensive with being, but which each add something to it.

The doctrine of the univocity of being implies the denial of any real distinction between essence and existence. Aquinas had argued that in all finite being (i.e. all except God), the essence of a thing is distinct from its existence. Scotus rejected the distinction. We can conceive of what it is to be something, without conceiving it as existing. Scotus denied this. We should not make any distinction between whether a thing exists (''si est'') and what it is (''quid est''), for we never know whether something exists, unless we have some concept of what we know to exist.

Categories

The study of the Aristotelian categories belongs to metaphysics insofar as the categories, or the things falling under them, are studied as beings. (If they are studied as concepts, they belong instead to the logician.) There are exactly ten categories, according to orthodox Aristotelianism. The first and most important is the category of substance. Substances are beings in a primary sense, since they have an independent existence (''entia per se''). Beings in any of the other nine categories, called accidents, exist in substances. The nine categories of accidents are quantity, quality, relation, action, passion, place, time, position, and state (or ''habitus'').

Individuation

Duns elaborates a distinct view on hylomorphism, with three important strong theses that differentiate him. He held: 1) that there exists matter that has no form whatsoever, or prime matter, as the stuff underlying all change, against Aquinas (cf. his ''Quaestiones in Metaphysicam'' 7, q. 5; ''Lectura'' 2, d. 12, q. un.), 2) that not all created substances are composites of form and matter (cf. ''Lectura'' 2, d. 12, q. un., n. 55), that is, that purely spiritual substances do exist, and 3) that one and the same substance can have more than one substantial form — for instance, humans have at least two substantial forms, the soul and the form of the body (''forma corporeitas'') (cf. ''Ordinatio'' 4, d. 11, q. 3, n. 54). He argued for an original principle of individuation (cf. ''Ordinatio'' 2, d. 3, pars 1, qq. 1-6), the "haecceity" as the ultimate unity of a unique individual (''haecceitas'', an entity's 'thisness'), as opposed to the common nature (''natura communis''), feature existing in any number of individuals. For Scotus, the axiom stating that only the individual exists is a dominating principle of the understanding of reality. For the apprehension of individuals, an intuitive cognition is required, which gives us the present existence or the non-existence of an individual, as opposed to abstract cognition. Thus the human soul, in its separated state from the body, will be capable of knowing the spiritual intuitively.

Formal distinction

Like other realist philosophers of the period (such as Aquinas and Henry of Ghent) Scotus recognised the need for an intermediate distinction that was not merely conceptual, but not fully real or mind-dependent either. Scotus argued for an formal distinction (''distinctio formalis a parte rei''), which holds between entities which are inseparable and indistinct in reality, but whose definitions are not identical. For example, the personal properties of the Trinity are formally distinct from the Divine essence. Similarly, the distinction between the 'thisness' or ''haecceity'' of a thing is intermediate between a real and a conceptual distinction. There is also a formal distinction between the divine attributes and the powers of the soul.

Theology

Voluntarism

Scotus was an Augustinian theologian. He is usually associated with voluntarism, the tendency to emphasize God's will and human freedom in all philosophical issues. The main difference between Aquinas' rational theology and that of Scotus' is that Scotus believes certain predicates may be applied univocally — with exactly the same meaning — to God and creatures, whereas Aquinas insisted that this is impossible, and that only analogical predication can be employed, in which a word as applied to God has a meaning different from, although related to, the meaning of that same word as applied to creatures. Duns struggled throughout his works in demonstrating his univocity theory against Aquinas' analogy doctrine.

Existence of God

The existence of God can be proven only ''a posteriori'', through its effects. The Causal Argument he gives for the existence of God says that an infinity of things that are essentially ordered is impossible, as the totality of caused things that are essentially caused is itself caused, and so it is caused by some cause which is not a part of the totality, for then it would be the cause of itself; for the whole totality of dependent things is cause, and not on anything belonging to that totality. The argument is relevant for Scotus' conception of metaphysical inquiry into being by searching the ways into which beings relate to each other.

Illuminationism

Scotus argued against the version of illuminationism that had been defended earlier in the century by Henry of Ghent. In his ''Ordinatio'' (I.3.1.4) he argued against the sceptical consequences that Henry claimed would follow from abandoning divine illumination. Scotus argued that if our thinking were fallible in the way Henry had believed, such illumination could not, even in principle, ensure "certain and pure knowledge."

:When one of those that come together is incompatible with certainty, then certainty cannot be achieved. For just as from one premise that is necessary and one that is contingent nothing follows but a contingent conclusion, so from something certain and something uncertain, coming together in some cognition, no cognition that is certain follows (''Ordinatio'' I.3.1.4 n.221).

Immaculate Conception

Perhaps the most influential point of Duns Scotus' theology was his defense of the Immaculate Conception of Mary. At the time, there was a great deal of argument about the subject. The general opinion was that it was appropriately deferential to the Mother of God, but it could not be seen how to resolve the problem that only with Christ's death would the stain of original sin be removed. The great philosophers and theologians of the West were divided on the subject (indeed, it appears that even Thomas Aquinas sided with those who denied the doctrine, though some Thomists dispute this). The feast day had existed in the East since the seventh century and had been introduced in several dioceses in the West as well, even though the philosophical basis was lacking. Citing Anselm of Canterbury's principle, "''potuit, decuit, ergo fecit''" (God could do it, it was appropriate, therefore he did it), Duns Scotus devised the following argument: Mary was in need of redemption like all other human beings, but through the merits of Jesus' crucifixion, given in advance, she was conceived without the stain of original sin. God could have brought it about (1) that she was never in original sin, (2) she was in sin only for an instant, (3) she was in sin for a period of time, being purged at the last instant. Whichever of these options was most excellent should probably be attributed to Mary. This apparently careful statement provoked a storm of opposition at Paris, and suggested the line 'fired France for Mary without spot' in the famous poem "Duns Scotus's Oxford," by Gerard Manley Hopkins.

This argument appears in Pope Pius IX's declaration of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. Pope John XXIII recommended the reading of Duns Scotus' theology to modern theology students.

Logic

The authenticity of Scotus' logical works has been questioned. Some of the logical and metaphysical works originally attributed to him are now known to be by other authors. There were already concerns about this within two centuries of his death, when the sixteenth-century logician Jacobus Naveros noted inconsistencies between these texts and his commentary on the ''Sentences'', leading him to doubt whether he had written any logical works at all. The Questions on the Prior Analytics (''In Librum Priorum Analyticorum Aristotelis Quaestiones'') were also discovered to be mistakenly attributed.

Modern editors have identified only four works as authentic: the commentaries on Porphyry's Isagoge, on Aristotle's Categories, On Interpretation (in two different versions), and on Sophistical Refutations, probably written in that order. These are called the ''parva logicalia''. These are dated at around 1295, when Scotus would have been in his late twenties, working in Oxford.

See also

Scotism

Oxford Franciscan school

History of science in the Middle Ages

Dunce cap

Bibliography

Editions:

"The Examined Report of the Parish Lecture, Reportatio I-A, Volume 1", edited and translated by (†) Allan B. Wolter, OFM and Oleg Bychkov. Franciscan Institute Publications, 2004978-1-57659-122-2. ISBN: 978-1-57659-193-2

"The Examined Report of the Parish Lecture, Reportatio I-A, Volume 2", edited and translated by (†) Allan B. Wolter, OFM and Oleg Bychkov. Franciscan Institute Publications, 2008. ISBN: 978-1-57659-150-5

''Lectura'' (Early Oxford Lectures)

''Opus Parisiense'' or ''Reportata parisiensia'' (Paris Lectures)

''Ordinatio'' or ''Opus Oxoniense'' (Oxford Lectures)

''Tractatus de Primo Principio'' (Treatise on the First Principle) Latin Version English Translation

''Questions on the Metaphysics of Aristotle'' Latin text

''Quaestiones Quodlibetales''

''De Rerum Principio'' (Of the Beginning of Things) An inauthentic work once attributed to Scotus.

''Cuestiones Cuodlibetales. In Obras del Doctor Sutil, Juan Duns Escoto''. Ed. Felix Alluntis. Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 1963.

''Opera Omnia''. ("The Wadding edition") Lyon, 1639; reprinted Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1968.

''Opera Omnia''. ("The Vatican edition") Civitas Vaticana: Typis Polyglottis Vaticanis, 1950-.

''Opera Philosophica''. St. Bonaventure, NY: The Franciscan Institute: , 1997-2006:

Vol. I: Quaestiones super Porphyrius Isagoge et Aristoteles Categoriae, Franciscan Institute Publications, 1999. ISBN: 978-1-57659-121-5

Vol. II: Quaestiones super Peri hermeneias et Sophistici Elenchis (along with)Theoremata, Franciscan Institute Publications, 2004, ISBN: 978-1-57659-122-2.

Vol. III-IV: Quaestiones super libros Metaphysicorum Aristotelis

Vol. V: Quaestiones super Secundum et Tertium de Anima. Franciscan Institute Publications, 2006. ISBN: 978-0-8132-1422-1.

English translations:

John Duns Scotus, ''A Treatise on God as First Principle''. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press 1982. A Latin text and English translation of the De Primo Principio. Second edition, revised, with a commentary by Allan Wolter, (First edition 1966).

John Duns Scotus, ''Contingency and Freedom. Lectura I 39'', transl., comment. and intro. by A. Vos Jaczn, H. Veldhuis, A.H. Looman-Graaskamp, E. Dekker and N.W. den Bok. The New Synthese Historical Library 4. Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer, 1994.

John Duns Scotus, ''A treatise on Potency and Act''. St. Bonaventure, NY: The Franciscan Institute 2000.

Questions on the Metaphysics of Aristotle Book IX. Introduction and Commentary. Latin text and English translation by Allan B. Wolter, St. Bonaventure, NY: The Franciscan Institute 2000.

Questions on the Metaphysics of Aristotle by John Duns Scotus. St. Bonaventure, NY: The Franciscan Institute, 1997-1998.

A. Vos, H. Veldhuis, E. Dekker, N.W. den Bok and A.J. Beck (ed.). ''Duns Scotus on Divine Love: Texts and Commentary on Goodness and Freedom, God and Humans'', Aldershot: Ashgate 2003.

Mary Beth Ingham, CSJ, "Scotus for Dunces: An Introduction to the Subtle Doctor", Franciscan Institute Publications, 2003.

Mary Beth Ingham, CSJ, "The Harmony of Goodness: Mutuality and Moral Living According to John Duns Scotus", Franciscan Institute Publications, 1997.

Thomas Shannon, "The Ethical Theory of John Duns Scotus", Franciscan Institute Publications, 1995.

Allan B. Wolter, OFM and Blane O’Neil, OFM, "John Duns Scotus: Mary's Architect", Franciscan Institute Publications, 1993.

Edited by Oleg Bychkof and Mary Beth Ingham, "John Duns Scotus,Philosopher: Proceedings of 'The Quadruple Congress' on John Duns Scotus Subsidia 3", Franciscan Institute Publications, 2010.

"John Duns Scotus, Philosopher: Proceedings of 'The Quadruple Congress' on John Duns Scotus Subsidia 5", Franciscan Institute Publications, 2011.

Introduction with Latin text and English translation and notes by (†) Allan B. Wolter, OFM, "John Duns Scotus. Early Oxford Lecture on Individuation", Franciscan Institute Publications, 2005.

Introduction with Latin text and English translation and notes by (†) Allan B. Wolter, OFM, "John Duns Scotus. Four Questions on Mary", Franciscan Institute Publications, 2000.

Introduction with Latin text and English translation and notes by (†) Allan B. Wolter, OFM, "John Duns Scotus. Political and Economic Philosophy", Franciscan Institute Publications, 2001.

Introduction with Latin text and English translation and notes by (†) Allan B. Wolter, OFM, "John Duns Scotus. A

Treatise on Potency and Act. Questions on the Metaphysics of Aristotle Book IX", Franciscan Institute Publications, 2000.

Edited By Allan B. Wolter, "Scotus and Ockham Selected Essays", Franciscan Institute Publications, 2003.

References

Notes

External links

Site of the International Scotistic Commission (Rome, Italy)

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: ''John Duns Scotus''

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: ''John Dun Scotus''

Catholic Encyclopedia article on John Duns Scotus

Site about Duns Scotus of the Research Group John Duns Scotus (Utrecht, NL)

Thomas Williams' pages on Scotus

The Realist Ontology of John Duns Scotus with an annotated bibliography

Article by Parthenius Minges on Scotists and Scotism at the Jacques Maritain Center

Local history site of Blessed John Duns Scotus' birthplace, Duns, Berwickshire, Scotland

Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by Duns Scotus in .jpg and .tiff format.

Category:13th-century philosophers Category:14th-century philosophers Category:13th-century Scottish people Category:14th-century Scottish people Category:Alumni of the University of Oxford Category:Roman Catholic theologians Category:Logicians Category:Roman Catholic philosophers Category:Scholastic philosophers Category:Latin commentators on Aristotle Category:Scottish philosophers Category:Scottish scholars and academics Category:Scottish theologians Category:Philosophers of language Category:Beatified people Category:Franciscans Category:13th-century Latin writers Category:14th-century Latin writers Category:Berwickshire Category:1266 births Category:1308 deaths Category:People from Duns Category:Premature burials Category:Scottish Roman Catholic priests Category:Scottish clergy Category:14th-century venerated Christians Category:University of Paris faculty

bn:জন ডানà§?স সà§?কোটাস be:Іаан ДунÑ? Скот bs:Ivan Duns Å kot ca:Joan Duns Escot cs:Jan Duns Scotus da:Johannes Duns Scotus de:Johannes Duns Scotus et:Johannes Duns Scotus es:Juan Duns Scoto eo:Duns Skoto eu:John Duns Scotus fr:Jean Duns Scot ko:ë‘”ì?¤ ì?¤ì½”투ì?¤ hr:Ivan Duns Å kot id:John Duns Scotus is:John Duns Scotus it:Duns Scoto he:×’'ון דנס סקוטוס la:Duns Scotus lt:John Duns Scotus hu:John Duns Scotus nl:Johannes Duns Scotus ja:ヨãƒ?ãƒ?ス・ドゥンス・スコトゥス no:John Duns Scotus pl:Jan Duns Szkot pt:Duns Scot ro:John Duns Scot ru:Иоанн ДунÑ? Скот sk:Ján Duns Scotus sl:Janez Duns Skot sr:ДунÑ? Скот sh:Duns Scot fi:Duns Scotus sv:Johannes Duns Scotus tr:John Duns Scotus zh:邓斯·å?¸å?„脱

Duns ( historically , ) is the county town of the historic county of Berwickshire, within the Scottish Borders.

History

Early history

Duns law, the original site of the town of Duns, has the remains of an Iron Age hillfort at its summit. Similar structures nearby, such as the structure at Edin's Hall Broch, suggest the area's domestic and defensive use at a very early stage.

Middle Ages

The first written mention of Duns is when a 'Hugo de Duns' signed as a witness to a charter before 1214, and is further mentioned when a 'Robert of Douns' signed the Ragman Roll in 1296. The early settlement was sited on the slopes of Duns Law, close to the original Duns Castle that was built in 1320, by the Earl of Moray, nephew of Robert the Bruce. The town was frequently attacked by the English in border raids and as they headed north to the Lothians. In 1333 the Guardian of Scotland, Sir Archibald Douglas mustered an army in Duns to march on Berwick, which at that time was under siege by the English. This did not end well for the Scots troops as they were heavily defeated at the Battle of Halidon Hill.

1377 saw the Earl of Northumberland invade Scotland. Camped at Duns, his army's horses were alarmed at night by the rattles used by the inhabitants to scare birds from their crops. The disarrayed English force was routed by the townsmen. The event is known as the Battle of Duns, and is the source of the town's motto, ''Duns Dings A!''

In 1513, some 6 miles to the north of the town at Ellemford, James IV of Scotland mustered his army, prior to his campaign that would lead to the disastrous Battle of Flodden.

Early Modern

The town was created a Burgh of Barony in 1490 by James IV heritably for John and George Hume of Ayton, and the townsfolk were given the right to hold a market every Wednesday, and hold a week long annual fair between Pentecost and Trinity Sunday. Duns suffered badly in cross-border raiding and feuding, and was burned to the ground three times within 14 years, in 1544,1545 and 1558 during the war of the Rough Wooing.

In the autumn of 1517, Duns Market Square was also the destination of the head of the Sieur de la Bastie, the French Ambassador and Warden of the Eastern March, following his murder at Preston, by Home of Wedderburn.

"Bautie, tha heidet, and in the toun of Dunce his heid affixt on a staik, that all men mycht se it, September xix."

In 1640 Duns became the mustering point for General Leslie and his covenanters. Oliver Cromwell put a garrison into the town after the Battle of Dunbar on 3 September 1650.

In the peace following the end of the Jacobite rebellion in 1745, Duns began to expand and many of the administrative functions of Berwickshire were carried out in the town. In 1903, a bill first introduced by the Secretary for Scotland in 1900 was passed confirming Duns as the county town of Berwickshire when nearby Greenlaw lost that status the following year.

Today

Duns has the largest shopping facilities in a radius of and houses the Berwickshire Sheriff Court as well as principal offices of the Scottish Borders Council. Since the early 1990s Duns and its immediate vicinity have seen substantial housing development, some controversial. A development near the golf club on the road to Longformacus just outside Duns is one such example, as it was built upon green field sites. Opposite the Berwickshire High School a new modern High School has been constructed to replace the mid-1950s buildings in which the school was previously housed. The new High School opened in February 2009.

Castle

The feudal laird is Alexander Hay of Duns and Drumelzier. His family acquired Duns Castle by marriage in 1696, and were responsible for the present Gothic Revival structure; prior to that, it had been a substantial Peel tower built in 1320 by the Earl of Moray who had been granted the estate by Robert I.

Country Houses

The district surrounding Duns once had a considerable number of famous Country Houses. Those surviving include:

The Edwardian mansion Manderston House (rebuilt in 1903), which lies just outside the burgh on the A6105 road to Berwick-upon-Tweed, the home of a Liberal Peer, Lord Palmer.

The early 18th century Edrom House (after architect James Smith), east of Manderston and now the home of the supermodel Stella Tennant.

About a mile east of Edrom stands Blanerne Castle, an ancient seat of the Lumsden family, rebuilt by architect William Burn in 1895 following a fire. Its ruined mediaeval Pele Tower stands nearby.

Nisbet House (c. 1630) with its great tower (1774) is about south of the town, and is currently being restored as a private home.

Wedderburn Castle (1771–1775, by architects Robert Adam and James Adam) is east of Duns and is built on the site of the earlier Tower house. It is the seat of the Homes of Wedderburn.

Further south lies Kimmerghame House, a Scottish Baronial mansion completely rebuilt in 1851 by architect David Bryce, almost destroyed by fire in 1938 but again much rebuilt. It is now the seat of a former Lord Lieutenant of Berwickshire, Major-General Sir John Swinton (father of the actress Tilda Swinton).

Education

Duns has a primary school, currently located near the town centre in a Victorian building. It is expected to move to refurbished premises in the old Berwickshire High School in 2014. The new Berwickshire High School is located to the west of the town on the A6015 and provides higher education not only for pupils from Duns but also the many surrounding villages and wider rural community. Borders College also have a small campus in the town.

The Ba game of Duns

This is a kind of medieval football. Three balls or "Ba"s were required for this game; the first was gold, the second silvered, and the third coloured or spotted. A fourth was provided in case of mishap, and if not needed was presented to the subscriber whose entertainment had been most hospitable, the Hay family at Duns Castle usually being the recipients.

At mid-day the honour of throwing up the ball would be auctioned in the Kirkyard. The throw would invariably be performed by a member of the Duns Castle family. At 1 o'clock the game began, the Ba being thrown up in the Market Square. The goal for the married men was the pulpit of the church; if a goal was scored then the church bell would rung by the victors. The goal of the bachelors was the hopper of any of the grinding mills in the district, the nearest being over a mile (1500 m) away. If a bachelor won the Ba he would be dusted with flour and receive a meal of pork and dumplings from the miller.

The game was revived in 1949 as part of the Duns Summer Festival. The goals are now at opposite corners of the Market Square, by the White Swan hotel and the Post Office.

Notable people

Louise Aitken-Walker (b. 1960), racing driver.

Reverend Thomas Boston (1676–1732), theologian and Presbyterian minister.

Jim Clark (1936–1968), Formula 1 racing driver . A small museum, which is known as The Jim Clark Room, can be found in Duns.

Doctor Samuel Cockburn (1823–1915), Medical doctor and homeopath, outspoken defender of homeopathy and critic of the medical establishment.

Robert Fortune (1812–1880), botanist . Introduced tea from China to India

Reverend Thomas M'Crie (1772–1835), historian and divine.

Pat Nevin (b. 1963), Scottish international football player.

Abraham Robertson (1751–1826), mathematician .

Blessed John Duns Scotus (c.1266–1308), theologian, scholar and logician .

See also

Duns Castle nature reserve

List of places in the Scottish Borders

List of places in Scotland

Battle of Duns

Twin towns

Żagań, Poland

References

Notes

Sources

''Calendar of documents relating to Scotland preserved in Her Majesty's Public Record Office, London'' V vols. ed. Bain, Joseph. Edinburgh 1881.

''Registrum Magni Sigilli Scotorum'', ed. Balfour Paul, Sir James.Edinburgh 1882.

Strang, Charles Alexander, ''Borders and Berwick'', Rutland Press, 1994, (P/B), ISBN 1-873190-10-7

Category:Berwickshire Category:Towns in the Scottish Borders Category:Traditional football

de:Duns gd:Na Dùintean it:Duns nl:Duns no:Duns pl:Duns

Johann "Hannes" Schneider (* June 24, 1890; † April 26, 1955) was an Austrian Ski instructor of the first half of the twentieth century.

He was born in the town of Stuben am Arlberg in Austria as a son of a cheese maker. In 1907 he became a ski guide at the Hotel Post in St. Anton, Austria where he began work on what became known as the Arlberg technique. After serving as a ski instructor for the Austrian army during the First World War, he returned to the Hotel Post. In 1921 a film came out based on the Arlberg technique, he formed a semi-independent ski school whereby 1924 he had formalized his method of instruction.

In the inter war period he also appeared in several of Dr. Arnold Fanck's ski films. ''Der weiße Rausch'', which helped make skiing popular, was filmed at the Arlberg in the winter of 1930/1931. He also co-published a book (with Fanck), named ''Die Wunder des Schneeschuhs'' which became translated to English as ''The Wonders of Skiing'' in 1931. Former students of Hannes Schneider include Otto Lang and Friedl Pfiefer.

In 1939 he moved his operations to Cranmore Mountain Ski Resort in North Conway, New Hampshire. He had run into trouble with Nazi policies and even spent time in jail after the Anschluss. During the Second World War he helped train the 10th Mountain Division of the U. S. Army in which his son Herbert served.

The New England Ski Museum hosts the Hannes Schneider Meister Skiing Cup in his memory every march at Cranmore Mountain resort. During 2005 the New England Ski Museum features an exhibit on the life of Hannes Schneider and his impact on the sport of skiing.

External links

A biography of Hannes Schneider

The films of Hannes Schneider, in Skiing Heritage magazine

Mount Cranmore where the Meister Skiing race is held.

Skischule Arlberg, originally founded by Hannes Schneider

Hannes Schneider, father of modern skiing

Ski history entries for years 1910, 1918, 1920, 1921, 1925, 1928, 1939

IMDB list of his film appearances

Category:Austrian alpine skiers Category:1890 births Category:1955 deaths

de:Hannes Schneider fr:Hannes Schneider ja:�ン�ス・シュ�イダー no:Hannes Schneider sv:Hannes Schneider

Coordinates	35°27′″N139°38′″N
name	The Immaculate Collection
type	Greatest hits
artist	Madonna
cover	Madonna - The Immaculate Collection.png
released	November 9, 1990
recorded	May 1982–October 1990
genre	Pop, Dance
length	73:34
label	Sire, Warner Bros.
producer	Stephen Bray, Patrick Leonard, John "Jellybean" Benitez, Reggie Lucas, Nile Rodgers, Shep Pettibone, Lenny Kravitz, Madonna
last album	''I'm Breathless''(1990)
this album	''The Immaculate Collection''(1990)
next album	''Erotica''(1992)
misc	}}

''The Immaculate Collection'' is the first greatest hits album by American singer-songwriter Madonna, released on November 9, 1990 by Sire Records. It contains fifteen of her hit singles from 1982 to 1990, as well as two new tracks "Justify My Love" and "Rescue Me". The title of the album is a loose pun of the Immaculate Conception, the conception of the Virgin Mary without any stain of the original sin. This name follows Madonna's religious-themed songs and videos, as well as the second section of her Blond Ambition World Tour, which also employed religious motifs. An extended play titled ''The Holiday Collection'' was issued in Europe to accompany the compilation and the re-release of the single "Holiday". It contained tracks omitted from this album: "True Blue", "Who's That Girl" and "Causing a Commotion".

The album was ranked at number one on the ''Blender'' magazine's list of "100 Greatest American Albums of All Time". In 2003, ''Rolling Stone'' magazine named the album the 278th greatest album of all time. It became Madonna's second album to be certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipment of over ten million copies across the United States. It also remains the best-selling album by a female artist in British music history and spent the second highest number of consecutive weeks at number one for a female solo artist in the U.K., being at number one for a 9 week stint. The album has sold more than 30 million copies worldwide, making it the best-selling compilation album by a solo artist and one of the best selling albums of all time. "Justify My Love", the album's first single, became Madonna's ninth number-one hit on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 and was one of her most controversial singles due to its sexually explicit music video. "Rescue Me" was released as the second single and became the highest debuting-single on Hot 100 by a female artist at that time, entering the chart at number fifteen and peaking at number nine.

Background

Originally titled ''Ultra Madonna'', the name was changed as Warner Bros. felt that it was too similar to the name of dance artist Ultra Naté. Madonna dedicated the album to "The Pope, my divine inspiration". This led to many believing it was dedicated to Pope John Paul II, but it was actually dedicated to her brother, Christopher Ciccone, who had spent the year on tour with Madonna ("The Pope" is one of his nicknames). The production of this album is notable for its use of QSound; all songs were mixed in using it, except "Justify My Love" and "Rescue Me". A QSound mix of "Justify My Love" was later released on the US maxi-single to the song.

All of the songs on ''The Immaculate Collection'' (with the exception of the two new songs) were remixed by Shep Pettibone alongside either Goh Hotoda or Michael Hutchinson and some were also edited down from their original lengths in order to decrease the overall running time. While all the vocals remain the same as in the original recordings, "Like a Prayer" and "Express Yourself" feature different music backing Madonna's vocals than their original album release. It was decided that a mixture of ballads and pop-dance hits would be included, although there wasn't space for every single that Madonna had released. "Justify My Love" became the first single to promote the album, and created a furor over the sexual video and the controversy in regards to who wrote it. (Poet Ingrid Chavez claimed she wrote part of the lyrics, alongside credited lyricist Lenny Kravitz.) The single shot to number one in the U.S. and number two in the UK. A second release, "Rescue Me", was released in early 1991, which also went top ten.

Warner Bros. released an EP in the UK and Europe titled ''The Holiday Collection'' which had the same design as ''The Immaculate Collection''. The full-length version of "Holiday" was included alongside "True Blue", "Who's That Girl", and the Silver Screen Single mix of "Causing a Commotion". The re-released "Holiday" eventually went to No. 5 in the UK charts, while a re-release of the ballad "Crazy for You" (using the new remixed version) peaked at No. 2. ''Blender'' magazine ranked the album at number one on their list of "100 Greatest American Albums of All Time". In 2003, the album was ranked number 278 on ''Rolling Stone'' magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. In November 2006, the album was confirmed by the British Phonographic Industry to be the biggest selling album by a solo female artist in British history, and the tenth biggest selling album of all time in the UK by any artist. On January 1, 1991, a box set entitled ''The Royal Box'' was released which included either a Cassette/VHS (US-only) or Satin CD Digipak/VHS (US, Germany/UK) with additional postcards and poster. The VHS version also included the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards performance of "Vogue".

Commercial response

''The Immaculate Collection'' was included in the list of BMG Music Club's top selling albums in the United States at number #10. The album stayed atop the UK Albums chart for 9 weeks, breaking the record for the longest ''consecutive'' weeks at #1 by a solo female artist, a record that would not be matched until 2011 by Adele's album ''21''. On March 12, 2006, the album re-entered the UK charts more than 15 years after its release at #38 (it reached #1 on its original release in 1990). Madonna's ''Confessions on a Dance Floor'' was also in the top 20 at #13. In 2006, the album returned to Ireland's Top 100 Albums chart, entering at #21, charting higher than ''Confessions on a Dance Floor'', which was at #95. On the week of April 28, 2008, the album rose 50 places from #122 to #72 on the official UK Albums Chart, the same week that Madonna's eleventh studio album ''Hard Candy'' was released internationally.

In the United States, ''The Immaculate Collection'' was certified Diamond (10x Platinum) by RIAA, becoming one of the best-selling albums in the country. In the United Kingdom, ''The Immaculate Collection'' was certified 12x Platinum by BPI for shipment of 3.6 million copies, becoming the best-selling album by a female artist in British music history.

''The Immaculate Collection'' was certified 11× Platinum by Australian Recording Industry Association, becoming one of the best-selling albums in Australia. In France, the album was certified Diamond for shipment of one million copies of the album. ''The Immaculate Collection'' has sold 30 million copies worldwide, making it the best-selling compilation album by a solo artist of all time.

Singles

From this album, Madonna released four singles:

# !! Title !! Date
1.	"Justify My Love"	November 6, 1990
2.	Rescue Me (Madonna song)>Rescue Me"
3.	Crazy for You (song)>Crazy for You (Remix)" (UK)
4.	Holiday (Madonna song)>Holiday (re-release)" (UK)

Track listing

This is the original 1990 track listing for the audio releases, for the VHS/VCD/Laserdisc/DVD version go to: ''The Immaculate Collection (video)'' {{tracklist | extra_column = Producer(s) | writing_credits = yes | title1 = Holiday | writer1 = Curtis Hudson, Lisa Stevens | extra1 = John "Jellybean" Benitez | length1 = 4:04 | title2 = Lucky Star | writer2 = Madonna | extra2 = Reggie Lucas | length2 = 3:39 | title3 = Borderline | writer3 = Reggie Lucas | extra3 = Reggie Lucas | length3 = 4:00 | title4 = Like a Virgin | writer4 = Tom Kelly, Billy Steinberg | extra4 = Nile Rodgers | length4 = 3:11 | title5 = Material Girl | writer5 = Peter Brown, Robert Rans | extra5 = Nile Rodgers | length5 = 3:53 | title6 = Crazy for You | writer6 = John Bettis, Jon Lind | extra6 = Nile Rodgers | length6 = 3:45 | title7 = Into the Groove | writer7 = Madonna, Stephen Bray | extra7 = Madonna, Stephen Bray | length7 = 4:10 | title8 = Live to Tell | writer8 = Madonna, Patrick Leonard | extra8 = Madonna, Patrick Leonard | length8 = 5:19 | title9 = Papa Don't Preach | writer9 = Brian Elliot, additional lyrics by Madonna | extra9 = Madonna, Stephen Bray | length9 = 4:11 | title10 = Open Your Heart | writer10 = Madonna, Gardner Cole, Peter Rafelson | extra10 = Madonna, Patrick Leonard | length10 = 3:51 | title11 = La Isla Bonita | writer11 = Madonna, P. Leonard, Bruce Gaitsch | extra11 = Madonna, Patrick Leonard | length11 = 3:48 | title12 = Like a Prayer | writer12 = Madonna, P. Leonard | extra12 = Madonna, Patrick Leonard | length12 = 5:51 | title13 = Express Yourself | writer13 = Madonna, S. Bray | extra13 = Madonna, Stephen Bray | length13 = 4:04 | title14 = Cherish | writer14 = Madonna, P. Leonard | extra14 = Madonna, Patrick Leonard | length14 = 3:52 | title15 = Vogue | writer15 = Madonna, Shep Pettibone | extra15 = Madonna, Shep Pettibone | length15 = 5:19 | title16 = Justify My Love | writer16 = Lenny Kravitz, Ingrid Chavez, additional lyrics by Madonna | extra16 = Lenny Kravitz | length16 = 5:00 | title17 = Rescue Me | writer17 = Madonna, S. Pettibone | extra17 = Madonna, Shep Pettibone | length17 = 5:31 }}

Additional notes

All tracks: "1990 QSound Mix" except "Justify My Love" and "Rescue Me"

The iTunes version, released digitally in 2005, contains different versions of: "Lucky Star" (U.S. Remix) – 7:15 and "Borderline" (Remix) – 5:18

"Like a Prayer" and "Express Yourself": Additional production by Shep Pettibone

"Justify My Love": Associate Producer: André Betts

"Vogue": Executive Producer: Craig Kostich

Formats

CD â€” containing the 17-track compilation album.

CD Limited Edition Box Set — ''The Royal Box'' containing a Satin Digi-Pak CD with VHS containing "Vogue" (from the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards), a 24" x 36" color poster and postcard assortment, housed in a lingerie-inspired LP sized box. CD Limited Edition Gold Edition — Rare 1995 Taiwanese exclusive limited 'Gold' Edition in a unique gold bordered slipcase.

Cassette — containing the 17-track compilation album.

Cassette Limited Edition Box Set — ''The Royal Box'' containing the Cassette version with VHS containing "Vogue" (from the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards), a 24" x 36" color poster and postcard assortment, housed in a lingerie-inspired LP sized box.

LP — double disc, containing 17 tracks.

LP Limited Edition Picture Disc — UK double picture disc, containing 17 tracks. Mini Disc — 17-track compilation, released 25 October 1999.

VHS — 13-track video compilation, contains "Oh Father", not included on the audio releases, and "Vogue" (from the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards).

Laserdisc — 13-track double disc video compilation, contains "Oh Father", not included on the audio releases and "Vogue" (from the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards).

VCD — Asia only, 13-track video compilation, contains "Oh Father", not included on the audio releases and "Vogue" (from the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards).

DVD — 13-track video compilation released in November 1999, contains "Oh Father", not included on the audio releases and "Vogue" (from the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards).

iTunes version — released digitally in 2005, contains different version of: "Lucky Star" - (U.S. Remix) 7:15, "Borderline" - (Remix) 5:18 and "Like a Prayer" - (Extended 12" Version) 7:24, all other tracks are the same as the original release.

Charts, certifications and procession

Charts

!Chart	!PeakPosition
UK Albums Chart

Certifications

!Country	List of music recording certifications>Certification
style="text-align:left;"	5× Platinum
style="text-align:left;"	11× Platinum
style="text-align:left;"	Platinum
style="text-align:left;"	2× Platinum
style="text-align:left;"	7× Platinum
style="text-align:left;"	Platinum
style="text-align:left;"	2× Platinum
style="text-align:left;"	Diamond
style="text-align:left;"	3× Gold
style="text-align:left;"	3× Platinum
style="text-align:left;"	7× Platinum
style="text-align:left;"	3× Platinum
style="text-align:left;"	3× Platinum
style="text-align:left;"	Gold
style="text-align:left;"	Platinum
style="text-align:left;"	12× Platinum
style="text-align:left;"	Diamond

Chart procession and succession

See also

List of best-selling albums worldwide

List of best-selling albums in the United States

List of best-selling albums in the United Kingdom

List of best-selling albums in Australia

List of best-selling albums in France

References

External links

Category:1989 greatest hits albums Category:Albums produced by Lenny Kravitz Category:Albums produced by Patrick Leonard Category:Albums produced by Nile Rodgers Category:Recording Industry Association of America Diamond Award albums Category:Madonna (entertainer) compilation albums Category:Sire Records compilation albums

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