2004 Summer Olympics
Bid process Venues Torch relay Opening ceremony (flag bearers) Medal table (medalists) Closing ceremony Event calendar Paralympics (medal table)
IOC

The 2004 Summer Paralympics were held in Athens, Greece, from September 17 to September 28. The twelfth Paralympic Games, an estimated 4,000 athletes took part in the Athens programme, with ages ranging from 11 to 66. Paralympic events had already taken place during the 2004 Summer Olympics as demonstration sports - women's 800 m and men's 1500 m wheelchair races. These races were open to able-bodied people and were without disability classification - as such, they did not form part of the official Paralympic programme. See Wheelchair racing at the 2004 Summer Olympics for more details.

Athletes with learning difficulties were excluded from the games due to the difficulties in testing for and classifying these disabilities. The exclusion was introduced after the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney, the first games with events exclusively for people with learning difficulties (and the second with such athletes), after it was found that the majority of the Spanish basketball team were not disabled. The International Paralympic Committee (IPC) stated that the exclusion would continue until there are sufficient tests for the disabilities and a way to measure the effect they have on a sport. Exhibition matches for these categories were featured in the Games in basketball and table tennis, and the Special Olympics remains the major sporting event specifically designed for athletes with learning difficulties.

Medal count[link]

A total of 1567 medals were awarded during the Athens games: 519 gold, 516 silver, and 532 bronze. China topped the medal count with more gold medals, more silver medals, and more medals overall than any other nation. In the table below, the ranking sorts by the number of gold medals earned by a nation (in this context a nation is an entity represented by a National Paralympic Committee).

Rank	Nation	Gold	Silver	Bronze	Total
1	China	63	46	32	141
2	Great Britain	35	30	29	94
3	Canada	28	19	25	72
4	United States	27	22	39	88
5	Australia	26	38	36	100
6	Ukraine	24	12	19	55
7	Spain	20	27	24	71
8	Germany	19	28	31	78
9	France	18	26	30	74
10	Japan	17	16	20	53

Among the top individual medal winners was Mayumi Narita of Japan, who took seven golds and one bronze medal in swimming, setting six world records in the process and bringing her overall Paralympic gold medal total to fifteen. Chantal Petitclerc of Canada won five golds and set three world records in wheelchair racing, while Swedish shooter Jonas Jacobsson took four gold medals.^[1] France's Béatrice Hess won her nineteenth and twentieth Paralympic gold medals in swimming. Swimmer Trischa Zorn of the United States won just one medal, a bronze, but it was her 55th ever Paralympic medal. She retained her position as the most successful Paralympian of all times.^[2]

Opening ceremony[link]

From the Paralympics opening ceremony

The opening ceremony for the 2004 Summer Paralympics took place on September 17, 2004. The show started with children passing on knowledge and raising their lights to the sky. This was a reference to Hippocrates, who transferred knowledge to the children. A 26 meters tall olive tree (with more than 195,000 leaves) symbolising life stood in the middle of the arena. The opening ceremony also featured a performance with human drama, with light and with music, in an allegory about obstacles and limits. The Parade of Delegations was accompanied by the music of French composers Yves Stepping and Jean Christophe. The music told the legend of Hephaestos, god of fire and son of Zeus and Hera. An athlete from Turkmenistan propelled himself around the stadium by doing somersaults. Greece, the home team, received a strong cheer. After that, fireworks erupted at the stadium. There were 150 local support staff involved and 400 volunteers. The children were from ages 8 to 17, coming from Australia, France, Spain, Greece and Germany. The Games were officially declared opened by Greek president Costis Stephanopoulos and Phil Craven, the president of the International Paralympic Committee. They were accompanied by the head of the organizing committee Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki, who told the athletes and the audience: "The Olympic flame illuminates athletes. Many of you will leave Athens with medals, but all of you will leave as champions." Phil Craven quoted Democritus in his speech: "Two thousand years ago, Democritus said 'To win oneself is the first and best of all victories.' This holds true for all athletes, but especially for Paralympians. Recognising and cultivating your unique abilities and mastering challenges - you set standards and give expression for many people, young and old, around the world." The Olympic flame was lit by Greek athlete Georgios Toptsis.

Closing ceremony[link]

The closing ceremony for the 2004 Summer Paralympics took place on September 28, 2004. The traditional cultural display was removed from the ceremony as a mark of respect for the deaths of seven teenagers from Farkadona, travelling to Athens, whose bus collided with a truck near the town of Kamena Vourla.^[3][4]

"The Athens Olympics Organising Committee [ATHOC] has decided to cancel the closing ceremony of the 12th Athens Paralympics as initially planned and scheduled because of the tragic accident that cost the life of pupils. The artistic and entertainment part of the ceremony will not take place." (official statement)^[4]

Flags were flown at half mast and a minute's silence was observed. In contrast with the formal nature of the opening ceremony, the athletes entered the stadium for the final time as a collective. The flag of the IPC was then officially handed over to the 2008 hosts, Beijing. An artistic presentation to acknowledge Beijing as the next host was still shown, which also unveiled the IPC's new logo. A procession of young people then made their way to join the athletes in the centre of the stadium carrying paper lanterns, before the Paralympic flame was extinguished, the final moment of the Paralympic Games.^[5]

Media Coverage Controversy[link]

Although the Paralympic Games were broadcast to around 1.6 billion viewers throughout 49 countries,^[6] some controversy was caused when no American television network stayed to broadcast the event.^[7] This resulted in some US viewers having to wait almost 2 months until the coverage was broadcast, compared with live feeds in the UK and other countries.^[8]

Sports featured in the 2004 Summer Paralympics[link]

The Swedish men's goalball team at the 2004 Paralympic Games; the team won a silver medal

The 2004 Summer Paralympics included 19 sports. New events featured in the Games were five-a-side blind football, women's sitting volleyball, and quads wheelchair tennis.

Results for individual events can be found on the relevant page.

• Archery
• Athletics
• Boccia
  • see Boccia for general details of the sport
• Cycling
• Equestrian
• Football (5-a-side)
• Football (7-a-side)
  • see Paralympic Football for general details of the sport
• Goalball
  • see Goalball for general details of the sport
• Judo
  • see Paralympic judo for general details of the sport
• Powerlifting
  • see Paralympic powerlifting for general details of the sport
• Sailing
  • see Paralympic sailing for general details of the sport
• Shooting
  • see Paralympic shooting for general details of the sport
• Swimming
  • see Paralympic swimming for general details of the sport
• Table Tennis
  • see Paralympic table tennis for general details of the sport
• Volleyball (Sitting)
  • see Paralympic volleyball for general details of the sport
• Wheelchair Basketball
  • see Paralympic basketball for general details of the sport
• Wheelchair Fencing
  • see Paralympic fencing for general details of the sport
• Wheelchair Rugby
  • see Wheelchair rugby for general details of the sport
• Wheelchair Tennis
  • see Wheelchair tennis for general details of the sport

Participating nations[link]

Athletes from 135 nations competed in the Athens Paralympics.^[9]

See also[link]

Paralympics portal

• Summer Paralympics
• Paralympics
• International Paralympic Committee
• 2004 Summer Olympics

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: 2004 Summer Paralympics

• 25 things you never knew about the Paralympics (BBC website). Also links to information about 20 athletes from Team GB.

Summer Paralympic Games

The Opening Ceremony in Athens for the 2004 Summer Paralympics.

Games

1960 • 1964 • 1968 • 1972 1976 • 1980 • 1984 • 1988 • 1992 • 1996 • 2000 2004 • 2008 • 2012 • 2016 • 2020 • 2024 • 2028

Sports (details)

Archery • Athletics • Boccia • Cycling • Equestrian Football 5-a-side • Football 7-a-side • Goalball • Judo • Powerlifting • Rowing Sailing • Shooting • Swimming Table tennis • Volleyball • Wheelchair basketball Wheelchair fencing • Wheelchair rugby • Wheelchair tennis

The Summer Paralympic Games or the Games of the Paralympiad, are an international multi-sport event, where athletes with physical disabilities compete. This includes athletes with mobility disabilities, amputations, blindness, and Cerebral Palsy. The Paralympic Games are held every four years, organized by the International Paralympic Committee. Medals are awarded in each event, with gold medals for first place, silver for second and bronze for third, a tradition that the Olympic Games started in 1904.

The United States have hosted two Summer Paralympic Games, more than any other nation. The United Kingdom will have hosted two Summer Paralympic Games when the Games take place in London in 2012. Other countries that have hosted the summer Olympics are Australia, Canada, China, Greece, Israel, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, South Korea, Spain and West Germany. In the 2016 Summer Paralympics, Rio de Janeiro will host the first Summer Games in South America. No cities have hosted two Summer Paralympic Games.

Twelve countries — Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, France, Great Britain, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Netherlands, Switzerland, United States — have been represented at all Summer Paralympic Games. Seven of those countries have won at least one gold medal at every Summer Paralympic Games: Australia, Austria, France, Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands, and the United States.

The United States have been the top ranking nation for eight of the 13 Paralympic Summer Games: 1964, 1968, 1976, 1980, 1984, 1988, 1992 and 1996. China have been the top ranking nation for the two most recent Games, 2004 and 2008. Italy (1960), West Germany (1972) and Australia (2000) have been the top ranking nation one time each.

Qualification[link]

Qualification rules for each of the Paralympic sports are set by the International Federation (IF) that governs that sport's international competition.

History[link]

The first official Paralympic Games, was held in Rome in 1960.^[1] 400 athletes from 23 countries competed at the 1960 Games though only athletes in wheelchairs competed.

At the 1976 Summer Games athletes with different disabilities were included for the first time at a summer Paralympics. With the inclusion of more disability classifications, the 1976 Summer Games expanded to 1,600 athletes from 40 countries.^[2]

The 1988 Summer Paralympics were the first to use the same facilities as the Olympics of that year.

London, United Kingdom will hold the 2012 Summer Paralympics. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil will be the host city of the 2016 Summer Paralympics, becoming the first South American city to host either the Summer or Winter Games.

Classification[link]

A wheelchair basketball game at the 2008 Summer Paralympics

Within the six disability categories the athletes still need to be divided according to their level of impairment. The classification systems differ from sport to sport, and is intended to even the playing field so as to allow as many athletes to participate as possible. Classifications vary in accordance with the different skills required to perform the sport.

Archery: Archery is open to athletes with a physical disability. Classifications are broken up into three divisions: W1, spinal cord injured and Cerebral Palsy athletes with impairment in all four limbs. W2, wheelchair users with full arm function. W3, standing amputee, Les Autres and Cerebral Palsy standing athletes. Some athletes in the standing group will sit on a high stool for support but will still have their feet touching the ground.^[3]

Athletics: Athletics is open to all disability groups and uses a functional classification system. A brief classification guide is as follows: prefixing F for field athletes or T for track athletes. F or T 11–13 are visually impaired, F or T 20 are learning disabled, F or T 32–38 are Cerebral Palsy, F or T 40–46 amputee and Les Autres, T 51–54 wheelchair track athletes and F 51–58 wheelchair field athletes.^[4]

Basketball: Basketball is open to wheelchair athletes and athletes with a learning disability. Wheelchair athletes are classified according to their physical ability and are given a points rating between 0.5 – 4.5. The individuals who rate at 0.5 are the most severely disabled and those at 4.5 are the least disabled. A team on the court comprises five players and may not exceed a total of 14 points at any given time.^[5]

Boccia: Boccia is open to athletes with cerebral palsy or related neurological conditions who compete from a wheelchair. Classifications are split into four groups; BC1: Athletes are either throwers or foot players (with Cerebral Palsy). Athletes may compete with an assistant BC2: For throwing players (with Cerebral Palsy). Players may not have an assistant BC3: Athletes (with severe disability) who use an assistive device and may be assisted by a person, but this assistant must keep their back to the court. BC4: For throwing players. Players may not have an assistant (non Cerebral Palsy).^[6]

Cycling: Cycling is open to amputee, Les Autre, Cerebral Palsy and visually impaired athletes who compete in individual road race and track events. Classifications are broken up into divisions 2, 3 and 4. Athletes in division two are the most severely disabled. While athletes in division four are considered to be higher functioning. Visually impaired athletes compete together with no separate classification system. They ride in tandem with a sighted guide. Amputee, spinal cord injury and Les Autre competitors compete within the classification groupings LC1 – for riders with upper limb disabilities, LC2 – for riders with disabilities in one leg but who are able to pedal normally, LC3 – essentially for riders with a handicap in one lower limb who will usually pedal with one leg only, and LC4 for riders with disabilities affecting both legs.^[7]

Equestrian: Equestrian is open to all disability groups, with riders divided into four grades. Grade 1 incorporates severely disabled riders with Cerebral Palsy, Les Autres and spinal cord injury. Grade 2 incorporates Cerebral Palsy, Les Autres, spinal cord injury and amputee riders with reasonable balance and abdominal control. Grade 3 is for Cerebral Palsy, Les Autres, amputee, spinal cord injury and totally blind athletes with good balance, leg movement and co-ordination. Grade 4 incorporates athletes who have Cerebral Palsy, Les Autres, amputation(s), spinal cord injury and/or are visually impaired. This last group comprises ambulant athletes with either impaired vision or impaired arm/leg function.^[8]

Fencing: Fencing is open to wheelchair athletes. There are only three classes; class A incorporates those athletes with good balance and recovery and full trunk movement; class B is for those with poor balance and recovery but full use of one or both upper limbs; class C is for athletes with severe physical impairment in all four limbs.^[9]

Football: There are two forms of football played at the Paralympics. The first is 5-a-side football, which is open to visually impaired athletes. The second is 7-a-side football, which is open to athletes with Cerebral Palsy. 5-a-side football is open to all visually impaired athletes. Since there are different levels of visual impairment, all players except the goalie (who acts as a guide) are required to wear eye shades. The field dimensions are smaller than able-bodied football, there are only five players on the pitch and the ball makes a sound. Otherwise the rules are exactly the same as able-bodied football.^[10] Athletes competing in 7-a-side football are broken down into classes 5, 6, 7 and 8. All classes comprise ambulant athletes; class 5 being the least physically able, progressing through to class 8 who are minimally affected. Teams must include at least one athlete from either class 5 or 6. Furthermore no more than three players from class 8 are allowed to play at the same time. Other than the fact that the game is played with seven players the rest of the rules and dimensions of the playing field are the same as able-bodied football.^[11]

The Swedish goalball team at the 2004 Summer Paralympics

Goalball: Goalball is open to visually impaired athletes who must wear "black out" masks to ensure all participants can compete equally, therefore eliminating the need for classification. The ball has a bell in it to help the players react to the ball. Complete silence at the venue is required so that the athletes can orient themselves and to ensure fairness.^[12]

Judo: Judo is open to visually impaired athletes. The rules are the same as able-bodied judo except that the players are allowed contact with their opponent prior to the start of the match. There are no classifications; participants are divided into weight categories in the same way as able-bodied judo athletes.^[13]

Powerlifting: Powerlifting is open to athletes with Cerebral Palsy, spinal cord injuries, amputations (lower limb only), and Les Autres. Since the competition is a test of upper body strength the classifications are by weight category as in able-bodied powerlifting competition.^[14]

Sailing: Sailing is open to amputee, Cerebral Palsy, visually impaired, spinal cord injured and Les Autres athletes. There are three events, one for single, double, and triple-crew boats. Classification for sailing in the three-person event is based on a functional points system with low points for severely disabled athletes rising by scale to high points for less disabled athletes. A classification committee evaluates each sailor and assign a point from one to seven based on their level of ability. Each crew of three is allowed a maximum of 14 points. The single-person event can be crewed regardless of points but the sailor must have at least a minimum level of disability which prevents them from competing on equal terms with able-bodied sailors. The two-person event is designed for more severely disabled athletes.^[15]

Shooting: Shooting is open to athletes with a physical disability. There are only two classes of competition, wheelchair and standing. There are two types of events, pistol and rifle. The athletes are broken down into classes based on their upper body functionality, balance, muscle strength and limb mobility. The three classes are SH1-competitors do not require a shooting stand, SH2-competitors cannot support the weight of the gun and require a shooting stand, and SH3-Rifle competitors with a visual impairment.^[16]

A Paralympian in the women's butterfly at the 2008 Summer Paralympics

Swimming: The Paralympic swimming competition features all four of the strokes used in able-bodied swimming competitions. Classification is divided into three groups: S1 to S10 are those with physical impairment. S1 will have the most severe impairment and an S10 a lesser impairment. Athletes are judged on their muscle strength, joint range of motion, limb length and movement co-ordination. S11 to S13 are those with a visual impairment. S11 will have little or no vision, S12 can recognise the shape of a hand and have some ability to see, S13 greater vision than the other two classes but less than 20 degrees of vision. S14 is for athletes with a learning difficulty.^[17]

Table Tennis: Table tennis is open to athletes with a physical disability. There are individual, doubles and team events. A match is 5 sets of 11 points each. The athletes are broken down into ten divisions based on their level of function. Classes 1 to 5 are for athletes competing from a wheelchair with class 1 being the most severely disabled and class 5 the least disabled. Classes 6 to 10 encompass ambulant athletes with class 6 the most severely disabled and class 10 the least.^[18]

Tennis: Tennis at the Paralympics is played with all the same rules as able-bodied tennis with the exception that the ball is allowed to bounce twice, and the first bounce must be within the bounds of the court. It is open to athletes with a mobility related disability which means that they cannot compete on equal terms with able-bodied tennis players. The game is played from a wheelchair, with two classes, paraplegic (at least one leg must have a permanent and substantial loss of function) and quadriplegic (at least three limbs must have a permanent and substantial loss of function).^[19]

Volleyball: Volleyball is open to athletes with a physical disability and is performed from a seated position. In sitting volleyball the court is smaller than the standard court and has a lower net. In the sitting games the only classification rule is that each team may have only one player who fits the minimum disability rule, which is that their disability prevents them from competing on equal terms with able-bodied athletes. The other players on the team must demonstrate a higher level of disability.^[20]

Wheelchair rugby: Athletes are classified on a points system similar to wheelchair basketball, with the most severely disabled athlete being graded at 0.5 points rising to 3.5 points. Each team has four players and is allowed a maximum of eight points on the court at any one time.^[21]

List of Paralympic sports[link]

A number of different sports have been part of the Paralympic program at one point or another.

List of Summer Paralympic Games[link]

Games	Year	Host	Dates	Nations	Competitors			Sports	Events	Ref
					Total	Men	Women
I	1960	Rome, Italy	18 – 25 September	23	400			8	57	[22][23]
II	1964	Tokyo, Japan	3 – 12 November	21	375	307	68	9	144	[22][23]
III	1968	Tel Aviv, Israel	4–13 November	29	750			10	181	[22][23]
IV	1972	Heidelberg, West Germany	2 – 11 August	41	1004			10	187	[22][23]
V	1976	Toronto, Canada	3–11 August	32	1657	1404	253	13	447	[22][23]
VI	1980	Arnhem, Netherlands	21–30 June	42	1973			12	489	[22][23]
VII	1984	Stoke Mandeville, United Kingdom / New York, United States	17–30 June (US) / 22 July - 1 August (UK)	54	2091			18	903	[22][23]
VIII	1988	Seoul, South Korea	15–24 October	61	3057			16	732	[22][23]
IX	1992	Barcelona, Spain	3–14 September	82	3020			15	487	[22][23]
X	1996	Atlanta, United States	16–25 August	104	3259	2469	790	20	508	[22][23]
XI	2000	Sydney, Australia	18–29 October	127	3846	2867	979	20	551	[22][23]
XII	2004	Athens, Greece	17–28 September	136	3806	2646	1160	19	517	[22][23]
XIII	2008	Beijing, China	6–17 September	148	4200			20	472	[22][23]
XIV	2012	London, United Kingdom	29 August - 9 September	future event
XV	2016	Rio de Janeiro, Brazil	7–18 September	future event

See also[link]

• All-time Paralympic Games medal count
• Cheating at the Paralympic Games
• Winter Paralympic Games
• Multi-sport event
• Summer Olympic Games

Notes[link]

External links[link]

• Official Site of the Paralympic Movement

Paralympic medal record
Competitor for  Canada
Goalball
Gold	2000 Sydney	Women's goalball
Gold	2004 Athens	Women's goalball
Alpine skiing
Gold	2010 Vancouver	Women's downhill (visually impaired)
Silver	2010 Vancouver	Women's slalom (visually impaired)
Silver	2010 Vancouver	Women's Super-G (visually impaired)
Silver	2010 Vancouver	Women's combined (visually impaired)
Bronze	2010 Vancouver	Women's giant slalom (visually impaired)

Viviane Forest (born May 14, 1979) is a multi-sport Paralympic medallist. She was born and raised in Quebec, and currently resides in Edmonton.^[1]

Sporting career[link]

Forest played on Canada's gold medal-winning goalball teams in Sydney and Athens.

She won a silver at the 2010 Winter Paralympics in Vancouver for slalom (Visually Impaired), with a time of 2:01.45, 0.89 seconds behind the winner, Sabine Gasteiger of Austria.^[2]

She won a bronze in the 2010 Winter Paralympics for giant slalom for women's visually impaired.^[3][4]

She won gold at the 2010 Winter Paralympics in Whistler Creekside for Women's Visually Impaired Downhill. This made her the first para-athlete to win a gold in both the Winter and Summer Games.^[4][1][3]

Her skiing guide is Lindsay Debou. Their personal sponsors are The Weather Network and Fischer.^[5]

Results[link]

Beyond the Paralympics, her results include:

2009 World IPC Championships-High 1 Korea

• Gold Medalist- Super-Combined
• Silver Medalist- Downhill
• Silver Medalist- Giant Slalom
• Silver Medalist- Slalom
• Silver Medalist- SG

2009 World Cup Finals-Whistler, BC

• Gold Medalist- Giant Slalom
• Gold Medalist- Downhill
• Silver Medalist- Super combined
• Silver Medalist- Super G

References[link]

External links[link]

• Viviane Forest: Going for Gold and Viviane and Lindsay 2010, official sites
• Canadian Paralympic Committee profile

Oscar Pistorius

Pistorius taking part in the Landsmót ungmennafélags Íslands in Kópavogur, Iceland, the largest sporting event in the country, on 8 July 2007
Personal information
Nickname(s)	Blade Runner; the fastest man on no legs; "Oz" Pistorius[1]
Born	(1986-11-22) 22 November 1986 (age 25) Sandton, Johannesburg, Transvaal Province (now Gauteng Province), South Africa
Height	1.86 m (6 ft 1 1⁄4 in) in prosthetics[2]
Weight	80.5 kg (177 lb) (2007)[3]
Website	www.oscarpistorius.com
Sport
Country	South Africa
Sport	Running
Event(s)	Sprints (100, 200, 400 m)
Achievements and titles
World finals	2005 Paralympic World Cup: 100 m (T44) – Gold; 200 m (T44) – Gold
National finals	2007 South African Senior Athletics Championships: 400 m (T44) – Gold
Paralympic finals	2008 Summer Paralympics: 100 m (T44) – Gold, 200 m (T44) – Gold; 400 m (T44) – Gold 2004 Summer Paralympics: 100 m (T44) – Bronze; 200 m (T44) – Gold
Highest world ranking	100 m: 1st (2008)[4] 200 m: 1st (2008)[5] 400 m: 1st (2008)[6]
Personal best(s)	100 m (T44): 10.91 s (2007, WR) 200 m (T44): 21.41 s (2010, WR) [7] 400 m (T44): 45.07
Medal record Men's athletics Competitor for  South Africa World Championships Silver 2011 Daegu 4 × 400 m relay Paralympic Games Gold 2004 Athens 200 metres (T44) Gold 2008 Beijing 100 metres (T44) Gold 2008 Beijing 200 metres (T44) Gold 2008 Beijing 400 metres (T44) Bronze 2004 Athens 100 metres (T44)
Updated on 14 September 2008.

Oscar Leonard Carl Pistorius (born 22 November 1986) is a South African sprint runner. Known as the "Blade Runner" and "the fastest man on no legs", Pistorius, who has a double amputation, is the world record holder in the 100, 200 and 400 metres (sport class T44) events and runs with the aid of Cheetah Flex-Foot carbon fibre transtibial artificial limbs by Ossur.

In 2007, Pistorius took part in his first international competitions for able-bodied athletes. However, his artificial lower legs, while enabling him to compete, have generated claims that he has an unfair advantage over able-bodied runners. The same year, the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) amended its competition rules to ban the use of "any technical device that incorporates springs, wheels or any other element that provides a user with an advantage over another athlete not using such a device". The federation claimed that the amendment was not specifically aimed at Pistorius. After monitoring his track performances and carrying out tests, scientists took the view that Pistorius enjoyed considerable advantages over athletes without prosthetic limbs. On the strength of these findings, on 14 January 2008 the IAAF ruled him ineligible for competitions conducted under its rules, including the 2008 Summer Olympics. This decision was reversed by the Court of Arbitration for Sport on 16 May 2008, the Court ruling overall there was no evidence that Pistorius had any net advantage over able-bodied athletes.

Although eligible to compete in the 2008 Summer Olympic Games in Beijing, Pistorius did not qualify for the South African team. Despite achieving third place and a personal best time of 46.25 seconds in the 400 metres in Lucerne, Switzerland, on 16 July 2008, this was short of the Olympic qualification time of 45.55 seconds. He was also not selected by the South African Olympic Committee for the 4 × 400 metres relay team as there were four other runners who had achieved better times. At the 2008 Summer Paralympics, he took the gold medals in the 100, 200 and 400 metres (T44) sprints.

With his 400 m time of 45.07 on 19 July 2011, he achieved the "A" qualifying standard for the 2011 World Championships and 2012 Olympics. He participated in the 400m sprint and 4x400m relay, being eliminated in the semi-final of the 400m sprint (finishing last with a time of 46.19secs) and being part of South Africa's silver medal winning relay team, making him the first amputee to win an able-bodied world track medal, although he was not selected for the final.

Early years and education[link]

Oscar Pistorius was born to Henke and Sheila Pistorius on 22 November 1986 in Sandton, Johannesburg, in what was then Transvaal Province (now Gauteng Province) of South Africa,^[1] with congenital absence of the fibula in both legs. When he was 11 months old, his legs were amputated halfway between his knees and ankles.^[3] He attended Constantia Kloof Primary^[8] and Pretoria Boys High School^[1][9] where, between the ages of 11 and 13, he played rugby union in the school's third XV team, water polo and tennis. He also played water polo and tennis at provincial level. In addition, Pistorius took part in club Olympic wrestling.^[2][10][11] After a serious rugby knee injury in June 2003, he was introduced to running in January 2004 while undergoing rehabilitation, and "never looked back".^[10]

Pistorius is studying for a Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.)^[12] in business management with sports science at the University of Pretoria;^[2][10] in a June 2008 interview for his University's website, he joked: "I won't graduate soon. With all the training I have had to cut down on my subjects. Hopefully I'll finish by the time I'm 30!"^[12] His sporting motto is: "You're not disabled by the disabilities you have, you are able by the abilities you have."^[10]

Sporting career[link]

Known as the "Blade Runner"^[13] and "the fastest man on no legs",^[14][15] he took part in the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens and came third overall in the T44 (one leg amputated below the knee)^[11] 100-metre event.^[16] Despite falling in the preliminary round for the 200 metres, he qualified for the final.^[17] He went on to win the final with a world record time of 21.97 seconds, beating American runners with a single amputation Marlon Shirley and Brian Frasure.^[16]

In 2005, Pistorius finished sixth in the able-bodied South African Championships over 400 metres with a world-record time of 47.34 seconds,^[11] and at the Paralympic World Cup in the same year he won gold in the 100 metres and 200 metres, beating his previous 200-metre world record.^[18][19] At the 2006 Paralympic Athletics World Championships, Pistorius won gold in the 100, 200 and 400-metre events, breaking the world record over 200 metres.^[20] On 17 March 2007, he set a disability sports world record for the 400 metres (46.56 seconds) at the South African Senior Athletics Championships in Durban,^[21] and at the Nedbank Championships for the Physically Disabled held in Johannesburg in April 2007, he became the world record holder of the 100 and 200-metre events with times of 10.91 and 21.58 seconds respectively.^[22][23]

Pistorius was invited by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) to take part in what would have been his first international able-bodied event, the 400-metre race at the IAAF Grand Prix in Helsinki, Finland, in July 2005. He was unable to attend, however, because of school commitments.^[24] On 13 July 2007, Pistorius ran in the 400-metre race at Rome's Golden Gala and finished second in run B with a time of 46.90 seconds, behind Stefano Braciola who ran 46.72 seconds.^[25] This was a warm-up for his appearance at the 400 metres at the Norwich Union British Grand Prix at the Don Valley Stadium in Sheffield on 15 July 2007.^[26] As American Olympic champion Jeremy Wariner stumbled at the start of the race and stopped running, Pistorius took seventh place in a field of eight in wet conditions with a time of 47.65 seconds. However, he was later disqualified for running outside his lane. The race was won by American Angelo Taylor with a time of 45.25 seconds.^[27][28] Pistorius has ambitions of competing in other able-bodied events. In particular, he had set his sights on competing at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China,^[29] but was ultimately not selected by the South African Olympic Committee (see below).

Pistorius's autobiography, Dream Runner, was published in Italian in 2008 by Gianni Merlo, a journalist with La Gazzetta dello Sport.^[30] An English version entitled Blade Runner was released in 2009.^[31]

Dispute over prosthetics[link]

The South African newspaper The Citizen announcing the IAAF's decision to bar Pistorius from its competitions – photographed in Johannesburg on 16 January 2008.

Pistorius has been the subject of criticism because of claims that his artificial limbs give him an advantage over runners with natural ankles and feet. He runs with J-shaped carbon-fibre prosthetics called the "Cheetah Flex-Foot" manufactured by Icelandic company Ossur.^[11]

On 26 March 2007, the IAAF amended its competition rules to include a ban on the use of "any technical device that incorporates springs, wheels or any other element that provides a user with an advantage over another athlete not using such a device".^[32] It claimed that the amendment was not specifically aimed at Pistorius. To decide if he is running with an unfair advantage, the IAAF monitored his track performances using high-definition cameras to film his race against Italian club runners in Rome on 13 July, and his 400 metres in Sheffield on 15 July 2007,^[14][33] at which he placed last.^[28]

In November 2007, Oscar was invited to take part in a series of scientific tests at the Cologne Sports University under the guidance of Professor of Biomechanics Dr Peter Brüggemann in conjunction with Mr Elio Locatelli, who was responsible with the IAAF of all technical issues. After two days of tests Brüggemann reported on his findings on behalf of the IAAF. The report claimed that Pistorius's limbs used 25% less energy than runners with complete natural legs to run at the same speed, and that they led to less vertical motion combined with 30% less mechanical work for lifting the body.^[34] In December, Brüggemann told Die Welt newspaper that Pistorius "has considerable advantages over athletes without prosthetic limbs who were tested by us. It was more than just a few percentage points. I did not expect it to be so clear."^[35] Based on these findings, on 14 January 2008 the IAAF ruled Pistorius's prostheses ineligible for use in competitions conducted under the IAAF rules, including the 2008 Summer Olympics.^[36] Pistorius called the decision "premature and highly subjective" and pledged to continue fighting for his dream. His manager Peet van Zyl said his appeal would be based on advice from United States experts who had said that the report "did not take enough variables into consideration".^[37]

In February 2008, Pistorius employed the services of law firm Dewey & LeBoeuf to challenge the ruling via an appeal and later that month, travelled to America to take part in a series of further tests carried out at Rice University in Houston by a team of scientists including Hugh Herr, PhD and Rodger Kram, PhD

Pistorius subsequently appealed against the adverse decision to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) in Lausanne, Switzerland, and appeared before the tribunal at the end of April 2008.^[38]

After a two day hearing, on 16 May 2008 the Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld Oscar’s appeal and the IAAF council decision was revoked with immediate effect. The CAS panel unanimously determined that Dr. Brüggemann only tested Oscar’s biomechanics at full-speed when he was running in a straight line (unlike a real 400m race), that the report did not consider the disadvantages that Oscar suffers at the start and acceleration phases of the race, that Dr. Brüggemann did not consider disadvantages that Oscar suffers, and that overall there was no evidence that Oscar had any net advantage over able-bodied athletes.^[39] In response to the announcement, Pistorius said: "My focus throughout this appeal has been to ensure that disabled athletes be given the chance to compete and compete fairly with able-bodied athletes. I look forward to continuing my quest to qualify for the Olympics."^[40]

Attempts to qualify for 2008 Summer Olympics[link]

To have a chance of representing South Africa at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing in the individual 400-metre race, Pistorius had to attain the Olympic "A" standard time of 45.55 seconds; the "B" qualifying time of 45.95 seconds if no other athlete from his country achieved the faster time did not apply. Each national athletics federation is permitted to enter three athletes in an event if the "A" standard is met, and only one athlete if the "B" standard is met.^[41] However, he was eligible for selection as a member of the relay squad without qualifying.^[42] His best chance was to try for a time of close to 46 seconds to make the 4 × 400-metre relay team. However, he said: "If I make the team I don't want to be the reserve for the relay, I want to be in the top four. I want to bring something to the race and make the relay stronger." To give him a chance of making the South African Olympic team, selectors delayed naming the team until 17 July.^[43]

On 2 July 2008, Pistorius competed in the 400 metres in the B race of the Notturna International in Milan but was "disappointed"^[43][44] when he failed to achieve the minimum Olympic qualification time, completing the race in fourth place in 47.78 seconds.^[43][45] His performance on 11 July 2008 at the Rome Golden Gala was an improvement of more than a second, though his sixth-place time of 46.62 seconds in the B race was still short of the Olympic qualification time. Nonetheless, he was pleased with his performance, commenting that he felt he could improve on it.^[46]

On 15 July 2008, IAAF general secretary Pierre Weiss commented that the world athletics body preferred that the South African Olympic Committee did not select Pistorius for its 4 × 400 metres relay team "for reasons of safety", saying that Pistorius could cause "serious damage" and risk the physical safety of himself and other athletes if he ran in the main pack of the relay.^[47] Pistorius branded this as the IAAF's "last desperate attempt" to get him not to qualify,^[48] and threatened legal action if the Federation did not confirm that it had no objections to his participation in the relay.^[49] The IAAF responded by issuing a statement saying that Pistorius was welcome to seek qualification for the Olympics and future competitions under IAAF rules: "The IAAF fully respects the recent CAS decision regarding the eligibility of Oscar Pistorius to compete in IAAF competitions, and certainly has no wish to influence the South African Olympic Committee, who has full authority to select a men's 4x400m relay team for the Beijing Olympics."^[50][51]

Despite coming third and running a personal best time of 46.25 seconds at the Spitzen Leichtathletik meeting in Lucerne on 16 July 2008, Pistorius failed in his final opportunity to qualify for the 400 metres at the 2008 Summer Olympics by 0.70 seconds. Athletics South Africa later announced that he would also not be selected for the 4 × 400 metres relay team as four other runners had better times.^[50][52] If Pistorius had been picked, he would have become the first runner with a leg amputation to participate in the Olympic Games.^[53] Asked about the possibility of the IAAF offering him a wild card to take part in the Olympics, Pistorius responded, "I do not believe that I would accept. If I have to take part in the Beijing Games I should do it because I qualified." Instead, he expressed a preference for focusing on getting into the 2012 Summer Olympics in London,^[44] noting that it was a more realistic target as "[s]printers usually reach their peak between 26 and 29. I will be 25 in London and I'll also have two, three years' preparation."^[45]

2008 Summer Paralympics[link]

Pistorius participated in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing in the 100, 200 and 400 metres (T44). On 9 September, in the heats of the 100 metres, he set a Paralympic record with his time of 11.16 seconds.^[54] Later, following a slow start, he rallied to snatch gold from the United States' Jerome Singleton in the 100 metres in a time of 11.17 seconds, 0.03 seconds ahead of the silver medallist.^[55] Four days later, on 13 September, the defending Paralympic champion in the 200 metres sprint^[56] won his second gold in the event in a time of 21.67 seconds,^[57] setting another Paralympic record.^[54] He completed a hat-trick by winning gold in the 400 metres in a world-record time of 47.49 seconds on 16 September,^[58] calling it "a memory that will stay with me for the rest of my life".^[59]

2011 and qualification for 2012 Summer Olympics[link]

Pistorius during the 2011 World Athletics Championships in Daegu.

In January 2011, a slimmer, trimmer Pistorius won three IPC Athletics World titles in New Zealand but was beaten for the first time in seven years in the 100m by American Jerome Singleton.^[60] He subsequently won the T44 400m in 47.28s and the 100m in 11.04s at the BT Paralympic World Cup in May to reassert himself as the world’s leading Paralympic sprinter.^[61]

Pistorius competed across a number of able-bodied races in the summer of 2011 and posted three times under 46 seconds but it was in Lignano, Italy, on 19 July that he set a personal best of 45.07s in the 400m, attaining the World Championships and Olympic Games ‘A’ standard qualification mark.^[62]

On 8 August 2011 it was announced that he had been included in the South African team for the World Championships in Daegu and had been selected for the 400m and the 4 × 400 metre relay squad.

To be selected for the South African team to compete at the Olympic Games in London, Oscar must again run inside the 400m ‘A’ standard of 45.25 seconds between January and June 2012.

In the heats of the 400 metre in the 2011 World Championships in Daegu, Oscar Pistorius ran a 45.39 and qualified for the semi-final. However, in the semi-final, Pistorius ran 46.19 and was eliminated.^[63] Had he run the 45.39 in the semi-final, that time would have qualified him for the final.^[64] In the heats of the 4 × 400m relay, Oscar ran the opening leg as South Africa advanced to the finals with a national record time of 2 minutes, 59.21 seconds. However, Pistorius was excluded from the finals. He still won the silver medal because he ran in the heats. Reflecting on his World Championship debut, Pistorius said: "I really enjoyed the whole experience. I ran my second fastest time ever in the heats and was really pleased to have reached the semi-finals. In the relay I was unbelievably chuffed to have broken the South African record, and hopefully my name will stay on that for a long time to come."^[65]

Medals[link]

Disability sports events[link]