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al-Kindi
http://wn.com/al-Kindi -
Alcibiades
Alcibiades Cleiniou Scambonides ( [http://cougar.eb.com/soundc11/bix/bixalc02.wav (listen)], Greek: , transliterated Alkibiádēs Kleiníou Skambōnidēs meaning Alcibiades, son of Cleinias, from the deme of Skambonidai; c. 450–404 BC), was a prominent Athenian statesman, orator, and general. He was the last famous member of his mother's aristocratic family, the Alcmaeonidae, which fell from prominence after the Peloponnesian War. He played a major role in the second half of that conflict as a strategic advisor, military commander, and politician.
http://wn.com/Alcibiades -
Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon (20/21 July 356 – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great (, Mégas Aléxandros), was a Greek king of Macedon. He is the most celebrated member of the Argead Dynasty and the creator of one of the largest empires in ancient history.
http://wn.com/Alexander_the_Great -
Ameipsias
Ameipsias (lang-grc|, fl. late 5th century BC) of Athens was a Ancient Greek comic poet, a contemporary of Aristophanes, whom he twice bested in the dramatic contests. His Konnos () gained a second prize at the City Dionysia in 423 BC, when Aristophanes won the third prize with The Clouds.
http://wn.com/Ameipsias -
Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras (, "lord of the assembly"; c. 500 BC – 428 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae in Asia Minor, Anaxagoras was the first philosopher to bring philosophy from Ionia to Athens. He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows, and the sun, which he described as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese. He was accused of contravening the established religion and was forced to flee to Lampsacus.
http://wn.com/Anaxagoras -
Antisthenes
Antisthenes (; c. 445-c. 365 BCE) was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Antisthenes first learned rhetoric under Gorgias before becoming an ardent disciple of Socrates. He adopted and developed the ethical side of Socrates' teachings, advocating an ascetic life lived in accordance with virtue. Later writers regarded him as the founder of Cynic philosophy.
http://wn.com/Antisthenes -
Aristippus
Aristippus () of Cyrene, (c. 435-c. 356 BCE), was the founder of the Cyrenaic school of Philosophy. He was a pupil of Socrates, but adopted a very different philosophical outlook, teaching that the goal of life was to seek pleasure by adapting circumstances to oneself and by maintaining proper control over both adversity and prosperity. Among his pupils was his daughter Arete.
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Aristophanes
Aristophanes (, ca. 446 – ca. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme Cydathenaus, was a prolific and much acclaimed comic playwright of ancient Athens. Eleven of his forty plays survive virtually complete. These, together with fragments of some of his other plays, provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, and they are in fact used to define the genre. Also known as the Father of Comedy and the Prince of Ancient Comedy, Aristophanes has been said to recreate the life of ancient Athens more convincingly than any other author. His powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries - Plato singled out Aristophanes' play The Clouds as slander contributing to the trial and execution of Socrates although other satirical playwrights had caricatured the philosopher. His second play, The Babylonians (now lost), was denounced by the demagogue Cleon as a slander against the Athenian polis. It is possible that the case was argued in court but details of the trial are not recorded and Aristophanes caricatured Cleon mercilessly in his subsequent plays, especially The Knights.
http://wn.com/Aristophanes -
Aristotle
Aristotle (, Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics.
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Aspasia
Aspasia (ca. 470 BC–ca. 400 BC, Greek: ) was a Milesian woman who was famous for her involvement with the Athenian statesman Pericles. Very little is known about the details of her life. She spent most of her adult life in Athens, and she may have influenced Pericles and Athenian politics. She is mentioned in the writings of Plato, Aristophanes, Xenophon, and other authors of the day.
http://wn.com/Aspasia -
Crates of Thebes
Crates (; c. 365-c. 285 BC) of Thebes, was a Cynic philosopher. Crates gave away his money to live a life of poverty on the streets of Athens. He married Hipparchia of Maroneia who lived in the same manner that he did. Respected by the people of Athens, he is remembered for being the teacher of Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism. Various fragments of Crates' teachings survive, including his description of the ideal Cynic state.
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Critias
Critias (Greek Kritias, 460-403 BC), born in Athens, son of Callaeschrus, was an uncle of Plato, and a leading member of the Thirty Tyrants, and one of the most violent. He was an associate of Socrates, a fact that did not endear Socrates to the Athenian public. He was noted in his day for his tragedies, elegies and prose works. Some, like Sextus Empiricus, believe that Critias authored the Sisyphus fragment; others, however, attribute it to Euripides.
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Crito of Alopece
Crito of Alopece was a faithful, probably life-long companion of Socrates. The two had evidently grown up together as friends, being from the same deme and of roughly the same age (Plato, Apology [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Apol.+33d 33d-e]). Plato portrays Crito as present at the trial and execution of Socrates, attending to the familial and practical matters having to do with the philosopher's death (Phaedo [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Phaedo+60a 60a], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Phaedo+63d 63d-e], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Phaedo+115b 115b-117a], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Phaedo+118a 118a]); so Crito survived Socrates, but for how long, we do not know. According to Plato, in addition to offering to help pay a proposed fine at Socrates' sentencing (Apology [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Apol.+38b 38b]), Crito swore before Socrates' judges that the philosopher would remain in prison until the execution rather than attempt to flee Athens (Phaedo [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Phaedo+115d 115d]), even though he is portrayed in the dialogue named after him as urging Socrates, for the sake of his friends and family, to allow Crito and the Thebians Simmias and Cebes and others to bribe the prison guards so that Socrates might flee to Thessaly, where he could seek asylum with friends of Crito's who lived there (Crito [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Crito+44b 44b-46a]). Crito appears to have been a wealthy businessman (Plato Euthydemus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Euthyd.+304c 304c]) who evidently made his money from running a successful farm (Euthydemus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plat.+Euthyd.+291e 291e]; Xenophon Memorabilia [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Xen.+Mem.+2.9.1 2.9.2-4]). Crito seems to have married a woman with impressive aristocratic pedigree (Euthydemus 306e), though we do not know her name.
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Diogenes Laërtius
Diogenes Laertius (ancient Greek: , Diogenes Laertios; fl. c. 3rd century) was a biographer of the Greek philosophers. Nothing is known about his life, but his surviving Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers is one of the principal surviving sources for the history of Greek philosophy.
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Diotima of Mantinea
Diotima of Mantinea () is a female seer who plays an important role in Plato's Symposium. Her ideas are the origin of the concept of Platonic love. Since the only source concerning her is Plato, it is uncertain whether she was a real historical personage or merely a fictional creation. However, nearly all of the characters named in Plato's dialogues have been found to correspond to real people living in ancient Athens.
http://wn.com/Diotima_of_Mantinea -
Eric A. Havelock
Eric Alfred Havelock (; June 3, 1903 – April 4, 1988) was a British classicist who spent most of his life in Canada and the United States. He was a professor at the University of Toronto and was active in the academic milieu of the Canadian socialist movement during the 1930s. In the 1960s and 1970s, he served as chair of the classics departments at both Harvard and Yale. Although he was trained in the turn-of-the-century Oxbridge tradition of classical studies, which saw Greek intellectual history as an unbroken chain of related ideas, Havelock broke radically with his own teachers and proposed an entirely new model for understanding the classical world, based on a sharp division between literature of the 6th and 5th centuries BC on the one hand, and that of the 4th on the other.
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Eric Havelock
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Euclid of Megara
Euclid of Megara (also Euclides, Eucleides, ; c. 435-c. 365 BCE) was a Greek Socratic philosopher who founded the Megarian school of philosophy. He was a pupil of Socrates in the late 5th century BCE, and was present at his death. He held the supreme good to be one, eternal and unchangeable, and denied the existence of anything contrary to the good. Editors and translators in the Middle Ages often confused him with Euclid of Alexandria when discussing the latter's Elements.
http://wn.com/Euclid_of_Megara -
Eupolis
Eupolis (ca. 446 BC-411 BC) was an Athenian poet of the Old Comedy, who flourished during the time of the Peloponnesian War.
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Hobbes
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Jacques-Louis David
Jacques-Louis David (30 August 1748 – 29 December 1825) was a highly influential French painter in the Neoclassical style, considered to be the preeminent painter of the era. In the 1780s his cerebral brand of history painting marked a change in taste away from Rococo frivolity toward a classical austerity and severity, heightened feeling chiming with the moral climate of the final years of the ancien régime.
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John Locke
John Locke (; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704), widely known as the Father of Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work had a great impact upon the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the American Declaration of Independence.
http://wn.com/John_Locke -
Jonathan Barnes
Jonathan Barnes (born 1942) is a British philosopher, translator and historian of ancient philosophy. He taught for 25 years at Oxford University before moving to the University of Geneva. He taught at the University of Paris- Sorbonne in France, and took his éméritat in 2006. He is the brother of the novelist Julian Barnes, and he and his family feature in the latter's memoir Nothing to be Frightened Of (2008).
http://wn.com/Jonathan_Barnes -
Karl Popper
Karl Raimund Popper, CH, FRS, FBA (28 July 1902 – 17 September 1994) was an Austro-British philosopher and a professor at the London School of Economics. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest philosophers of science of the 20th century; he also wrote extensively on social and political philosophy.
http://wn.com/Karl_Popper -
Khazar
http://wn.com/Khazar -
Menexenus
Menexenus (Greek: Μενέξενоς) was one of three sons of Socrates and Xanthippe. His two brothers were Lamprocles and Sophroniscus. Menexenus is not to be confused with the character of the same name who appears in Plato's dialogues Menexenus and Lysis. Socrates' sons Menexenus and Sophroniscus were mere children at the time of their father's trial and death, one of them small enough to be held in his mother's arms. As there was an ancient Greek tradition of naming the eldest sons after their grandfathers, Menexenus was likely the youngest of the three. According to Aristotle, Socrates' descendants as a whole turned out to be unremarkable: "silly and dull".
http://wn.com/Menexenus -
Mirza Tahir Ahmad
Mirza Tahir Ahmad (Urdu: ) (December 18, 1928 – April 19, 2003) was Khalifatul Masih IV, Caliph of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community and successor of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. He was elected to this office on 10 June 1982, the day after the death of his predecessor, Mirza Nasir Ahmad. He was the son of Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad, the second Caliph and was the half-brother of Mirza Nasir Ahmad, the third Caliph. He graduated from Jamia Ahmadiyya (Theological Academy) at Rabwah, followed by higher education in Lahore at the University of Punjab, and London at the University of London School of Oriental and African Studies. In 1974 he was also nominated as a member of the Ahmadiyya delegation which appeared in the Parliament of Pakistan to defend the beliefs of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.
http://wn.com/Mirza_Tahir_Ahmad -
Parmenides
Parmenides of Elea (Greek: ; fl. early 5th century BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Elea, a Greek city on the southern coast of Italy. He was the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. The single known work of Parmenides is a poem which has survived only in fragmentary form. In this poem, Parmenides describes two views of reality. In The Way of Truth (a part of the poem), he explains how reality is one, change is impossible, and existence is timeless, uniform, and unchanging. In The Way of Opinion, he explains the world of appearances, which is false and deceitful. These thoughts strongly influenced Plato, and through him, the whole of Western philosophy.
http://wn.com/Parmenides -
Pericles
Pericles or Perikles (Greek: , "surrounded by glory"; c. 495 – 429 BC) was a prominent and influential statesman, orator, and general of Athens during the city's Golden Age—specifically, the time between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars. He was descended, through his mother, from the powerful and historically influential Alcmaeonid family.
http://wn.com/Pericles -
Phaenarete
Phaenarete (Greek Φαιναρέτη), wife of Sophroniscus, was the mother of the Greek philosopher Socrates and his half-brother, Patrocles. (Since Sophroniscus had died before 424 BC, he was probably Phaenarete's first husband, while Chaeredemus, father of Patrocles, was her second.)
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Pierre Hadot
Pierre Hadot (b. Paris, February 21, 1922 – April 24, 2010) was a French philosopher and historian of philosophy specializing in ancient philosophy, particularly Neoplatonism. He was director at the École des hautes études en sciences sociales (EHESS) from 1964 to 1986 and was named professor at the Collège de France in 1982, where he held the Chair of History in Greek and Roman Thought (''chaire d'histoire de la pensée hellénistique et romaine). He retired from this position to became professeur honoraire'' at the Collège in 1991.
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Pindar
Pindar (, Pindaros; Latin: Pindarus) (ca. 522–443 BC), was an Ancient Greek lyric poet. Of the canonical nine lyric poets of ancient Greece, Pindar is the one whose work is best preserved. Quintilian described him as "by far the greatest of the nine lyric poets, in virtue of his inspired magnificence, the beauty of his thoughts and figures, the rich exuberance of his language and matter, and his rolling flood of eloquence".
http://wn.com/Pindar -
Plato
:For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Plato -
Prodicus
Prodicus of Ceos (, Pródikos; c. 465-c. 395 BC) was a Greek philosopher, and part of the first generation of Sophists. He came to Athens as ambassador from Ceos, and became known as a speaker and a teacher. Plato treats him with greater respect than the other sophists, and in several of the Platonic dialogues Socrates appears as the friend of Prodicus. Prodicus made linguistics and ethics prominent in his curriculum. The content of one of his speeches is still known, and concerns a fable detailing the education of Heracles by Virtue. He also interpreted religion through the framework of naturalism.
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Pythagoras
Pythagoras of Samos (, O Pythagoras o Samios, "Pythagoras the Samian", or simply ; c. 570-c. 495 BC) was an Ionian Greek philosopher and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. Most of our information about Pythagoras was written down centuries after he lived, thus very little reliable information is known about him. He was born on the island of Samos, and may have travelled widely in his youth, visiting Egypt and other places seeking knowledge. Around 530 BC, he moved to Croton, a Greek colony in southern Italy, and there set up a religious sect. His followers pursued the religious rites and practices developed by Pythagoras, and studied his philosophical theories. The society took an active role in the politics of Croton, but this eventually led to their downfall. The Pythagorean meeting-places were burned, and Pythagoras was forced to flee the city. He is said to have ended his days in Metapontum.
http://wn.com/Pythagoras -
R. M. Hare
Richard Mervyn Hare (21 March 1919 in Backwell, Somerset – 29 January 2002 in Ewelme, Oxfordshire) was an English moral philosopher who held the post of White's Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Oxford from 1966 until 1983 and then taught for a number of years at the University of Florida. His meta-ethical theories were influential during the second half of the twentieth century.
http://wn.com/R_M_Hare -
Robert Drew Hicks
Robert Drew Hicks (1850, Bristol — 8 March 1929, Cambridge) was a classical scholar, and a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
http://wn.com/Robert_Drew_Hicks -
Sophroniscus
Sophroniscus, (Greek Σωφρονίσκος) husband of Phaenarete, was the father of the philosopher Socrates.
http://wn.com/Sophroniscus -
Søren Kierkegaard
Søren Aabye Kierkegaard ( or ; ) (5 May 1813 – 11 November 1855) was a deeply religious Danish Theologian who took an interest in the new culture developing in the first half of the nineteenth century. The Age of Reason had replaced the age of faith established by the Holy Roman Empire. Kierkegaard devoted his life to the affirmation of the Lutheran faith against Reason and all forms of speculation in the realm of Christianity. In 1842 he heard every philosopher say, "Everything must be doubted," so he began doubting everything until he heard the philosphers say, "One must not waste time on doubting, but must just begin straight away on philosophy." He had been brought up to believe that "even an ordinary person endeavors to do what he says, though it may happen that he does something else through ignorance, because he does not understand himself. Yet this cannot happen with the philosopher." Four years later he wrote, "it should immediately be borne in mind that the issue is not about the truth of Christianity but about the individual’s relation to Christianity, consequently not about the indifferent individual’s systematic eagerness to arrange the truths of Christianity in paragraphs but rather about the concern of the infinitely interested individual with regard to his own relation to such a doctrine".
http://wn.com/Søren_Kierkegaard -
Terence Irwin
Terence Irwin (born 21 April 1947, in Enniskillen, Northern Ireland) is a scholar and philosopher specializing in ancient Greek philosophy and the history of ethics (i.e. the history of Western moral philosophy in ancient, medieval, and modern times).
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Thucydides
Thucydides (c. 460 BC – c. 395 BC) (Greek Θουκυδίδης, Thoukydídēs) was a Greek historian and author of the History of the Peloponnesian War, which recounts the 5th century BC war between Sparta and Athens to the year 411 BC. Thucydides has been dubbed the father of "scientific history" because of his strict standards of evidence-gathering and analysis in terms of cause and effect without reference to intervention by the gods, as outlined in his introduction to his work.
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Timon (philosopher)
http://wn.com/Timon_(philosopher) -
Voltaire
François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 1694 – 30 May 1778), better known by the pen name Voltaire (), was a French Enlightenment writer and philosopher famous for his wit and for his advocacy of civil liberties, including freedom of religion and free trade. Voltaire was a prolific writer and produced works in almost every literary form including plays, poetry, novels, essays, historical and scientific works, more than 20,000 letters and more than 2,000 books and pamphlets. He was an outspoken supporter of social reform, despite strict censorship laws and harsh penalties for those who broke them. As a satirical polemicist, he frequently made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma and the French institutions of his day.
http://wn.com/Voltaire -
Walter Ong
http://wn.com/Walter_Ong -
Xenophon
Xenophon (Ancient Greek , Xenophōn; Modern Greek Ξενοφών, Ksenofon; Ξενοφώντας, Ksenofontas; c. 430 – 354 BC), son of Gryllus, of the deme Erchia of Athens, also known as Xenophon of Athens, was a Greek historian, soldier, mercenary, and a contemporary and admirer of Socrates. He is known for his writings on the history of his own times, the 4th century BC, preserving the sayings of Socrates, and descriptions of life in ancient Greece and the Persian Empire.
http://wn.com/Xenophon -
Zeno of Citium
Zeno of Citium (, Zēnōn ho Kitieŭs; 334 BC - 262 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Citium (), Cyprus. Zeno was the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, which he taught in Athens from about 300 BC. Based on the moral ideas of the Cynics, Stoicism laid great emphasis on goodness and peace of mind gained from living a life of virtue in accordance with nature. It proved very successful, and flourished as the dominant philosophy from the Hellenistic period through to the Roman era.
http://wn.com/Zeno_of_Citium
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Sparta
Sparta (Doric Σπάρτα; Attic Spartē) or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c. 650 BC it rose to become the dominant military land-power in ancient Greece.
http://wn.com/Sparta
- al-Kindi
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- amnesty
- Anaxagoras
- ancient Greece
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- Apology (Plato)
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- belief
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- Callias (Comic Poet)
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- Classical Greece
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- Crates of Thebes
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- Crito of Alopece
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- daemon (mythology)
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- Diogenes Laërtius
- Diotima of Mantinea
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- Eric Havelock
- eros (love)
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- Euclid of Megara
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- Middle Ages
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- Robert Drew Hicks
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- Zeno of Citium
Alafouzos, Socrates Filmography
- Megales Prodosies (2010) (actor, plays Andreas)
- H mera meta (2010) (actor, plays Andreas)
- To kouragio n'allakseis (2010) (actor, plays Andreas)
- Ap'to pleyro tou Adam (2010) (actor, plays Andreas)
- (#1.6) (2008) (actor, plays Vasilis Koutroubas)
- (#1.5) (2008) (actor, plays Nikitas)
- (#1.4) (2008) (actor, plays Nikitas)
- (#1.3) (2008) (actor, plays Nikitas)
- (#1.2) (2008) (actor, plays Nikitas)
- (#1.15) (2008) (actor, plays Orestis Panayotou)
- (#1.9) (2008) (actor, plays Dimitris)
- (#1.8) (2008) (actor, plays Kostas Klavdianos)
- (#1.7) (2008) (actor, plays Nikos Stathatos)
- (#1.5) (2008) (actor, plays Alexis Drakos)
- (#1.1) (2008) (actor, plays Young Giannis Katsonis)
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Socrates - Encyclopedia channel
Ancient Greek philosopher Socrates was born in Athens in the year 469 BC, into the family of the sculptor Sophroniscus and Phaenarete. Socrates became the new philosophy founder and the teacher of the many of great philosophers. There is a sample of our production worldwide distributed.Having an exchange stock we are looking for archive and video materials (tv quality) for our use in our own historical video-project about prominent people of the past and famous canvases. (For more information please visit: www.enc-tv.com)
http://wn.com/Socrates__Encyclopedia_channel
Kill Socrates
Why a Democracy killed an old man for exercising Freedom of Speech.
http://wn.com/Kill_Socrates
Eurovision 1979 - Greece - Socrates - Elpida
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:54
- Published: 19 Nov 2007
- Uploaded: 23 Oct 2011
- Author: eurovisionmania
Eurovision 1979 - Greece - Socrates - Elpida
http://wn.com/Eurovision_1979__Greece__Socrates__Elpida
2. Socratic Citizenship: Plato's Apology
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 45:35
- Published: 22 Sep 2008
- Uploaded: 28 Oct 2011
- Author: YaleCourses
Introduction to Political Philosophy (PLSC 114) The lecture begins with an explanation of why Plato's Apology is the best introductory text to the study of political philosophy. The focus remains on the Apology as a symbol for the violation of free expression, with Socrates justifying his way of life as a philosopher and defending the utility of philosophy for political life. 00:00 - Chapter 1. Introduction: Plato, Apology 09:31 - Chapter 2. Political Context of the Dialogue 19:19 - Chapter 3. Accusations Leveled Against Socrates 27:51 - Chapter 4. Clouds: Debunking Socrates' New Model of Citizenship 33:31 - Chapter 5. The Famous Socratic "Turn"; Socrates' Second Sailing Complete course materials are available at the Open Yale Courses website: open.yale.edu This course was recorded in Fall 2006.
http://wn.com/2_Socratic_Citizenship_Plato's_Apology
The Wisdom of Socrates
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:00
- Published: 24 Nov 2009
- Uploaded: 20 Oct 2011
- Author: wileystudios
The philosopher Socrates remains, as he was in his lifetime (469-399 BC), an enigma, an inscrutable individual who, despite having written nothing, is considered one of the handful of philosophers who forever changed how philosophy itself was to be conceived. All our information about him is second-hand and most of it vigorously disputed, but his trial and death at the hands of the Athenian democracy is nevertheless the founding myth of the academic discipline of philosophy, and his influence has been felt far beyond philosophy itself, and in every age.
http://wn.com/The_Wisdom_of_Socrates
Bill & Ted meet Socrates
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:56
- Published: 09 Oct 2010
- Uploaded: 31 Oct 2011
- Author: danphxariz
Bill & Ted meet Socrates. All we are is dust in the wind, dude.
http://wn.com/Bill_Ted_meet_Socrates
Socrates Brazil vs USSR 1-1 First Round World Cup 1982
This goal was voted in Holland as the 19th best goal in World Cup history.
http://wn.com/Socrates_Brazil_vs_USSR_1-1_First_Round_World_Cup_1982
Socrates Drank The Conium (Live 1999-STEREO) Starvation
Socrates (as the somewhat ponderous name is often abbreviated) began its career in the clubs of Athens. Most prominent of these was the popular Kyttaro. They were present at a number of other locations in and around Victoria Square in Athens. Apart from playing many original songs at gigs, Socrates often covered Jimi Hendrix songs, none of which were featured on any studio releases. However, a thirteen-minute cover of (I Can't Get No) Satisfaction by the Rolling Stones found its way onto their 1972 album Taste of Conium. The guitarist, Yannis Spathas, favored a mid-1960's sunburst Fender Stratocaster, a Candy Apple Red Roland GR-505 guitar synthesizer and a black Gibson Les Paul Custom as his instruments, Antonis Tourkoyorgis played a mid-1970's natural ash-bodied Fender Jazz Bass and sang, while several drummers were used throughout the live shows and recording sessions. As a whole, the three-piece outfit resembled that of Cream: counterparts Spathas and Clapton, singer/bassists Tourkoyorgis and Bruce and drummers Boukouvalas and Baker. In 1974, Socrates went through a change in stylistic direction with "Phos" which was produced by Vangelis and featured his contribution on many tracks. Phos was mostly reworkings of older songs by Socrates. During 2006 Socrates reunited in an extended form (featuring keyboards and a second singer) to do several shows around Athens.
http://wn.com/Socrates_Drank_The_Conium_Live_1999-STEREO_Starvation
Socrates-Starvation
Live in Athens 2005 Socrates Drank the Conium is a Greek progressive/blues rock band that was active in the early 1970s. Their sound was reminiscent of other such bands of the approximate period like the Jimi Hendrix Experience, Led Zeppelin, Cream, Jeff Beck and some of the more progressive, experimental works of Black Sabbath. Their categorization as "progressive" can be attributed mainly to their abundant use of less-than-conventional time signatures. The Group would go through many lineup changes throughout the years, but the two core members have remained: guitarist Yannis Spathas and bassist/singer Antonis Tourkoyorgis History Socrates (as the somewhat ponderous name is often abbreviated) began its career in the clubs of Athens. Most prominent of these was the popular Kyttaro. They were present at a number of other locations in and around Victoria Square in Athens. Apart from playing many original songs at gigs, Socrates often covered Jimi Hendrix songs, none of which were featured on any studio releases. However, a thirteen-minute cover of (I Can't Get No) Satisfaction by the Rolling Stones found its way onto their 1972 album Taste of Conium. The guitarist, Yannis Spathas, favored a mid-1960's sunburst Fender Stratocaster, a Candy Apple Red Roland GR-505 guitar synthesizer and a black Gibson Les Paul Custom as his instruments, Antonis Tourkoyorgis played a mid-1970's natural ash-bodied Fender Jazz Bass and sang, while several drummers were used throughout the live <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Socrates-Starvation
3. Socratic Citizenship: Plato's Crito
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 47:16
- Published: 22 Sep 2008
- Uploaded: 28 Oct 2011
- Author: YaleCourses
Introduction to Political Philosophy (PLSC 114) In the Apology, Socrates proposes a new kind of citizenship in opposition to the traditional one that was based on the poetic conception of Homer. Socrates' is a philosophical citizenship, relying on one's own powers of independent reason and judgment. The Crito, a dialogue taking place in Socrates' prison cell, is about civil obedience, piety, and the duty of every citizen to respect and live by the laws of the community. 00:00 - Chapter 1. Was Socrates Guilty or Innocent? 02:22 - Chapter 2. The Socratic Citizen 09:39 - Chapter 3. Principled DIsobedience to the Law 24:07 - Chapter 4. Crito's Apology: "Companion Dialogue" 42:22 - Chapter 5. Applying Lessons from Fourth-Century Athens to Our World Today Complete course materials are available at the Open Yale Courses website: open.yale.edu This course was recorded in Fall 2006.
http://wn.com/3_Socratic_Citizenship_Plato's_Crito
The Socratic Seminar
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:54
- Published: 18 Jun 2009
- Uploaded: 22 Oct 2011
- Author: MrMatthewjherbert
This film will demonstrate how to properly conduct a Socratic Seminar
http://wn.com/The_Socratic_Seminar
Bringing Wisdom of Socrates to Modern Dialogue - Karen Armstrong
Complete video at: fora.tv Author, scholar and journalist Karen Armstrong discusses the need to apply Socratic philosophy to the counterproductive fierceness of modern debate. "Real philosophical debate...that is conducted in the spirit of malice or hate will not work," she says. ----- Ms. Armstrong describes how Islam, Judaism and Christianity have been diverted from a shared moral purpose. She now is working with the TED community to build a Charter for Compassion. - Chautauqua Institution Karen Armstrong is one of the most provocative, original thinkers on the role of religion in the modern world. Armstrong is a former Roman Catholic nun who left a British convent to pursue a degree in modern literature at Oxford. In 1982 she wrote a book about her seven years in the convent, Through the Narrow Gate, that angered and challenged Catholics worldwide; her recent book The Spiral Staircase discusses her subsequent spiritual awakening after leaving the convent, when she began to develop her iconoclastic take on the great monotheistic religions. She has written more than 20 books around the ideas of what Islam, Judaism and Christianity have in common, and around their effect on world events, including the magisterial A History of God and Holy War: The Crusades and Their Impact on Todays World. Her latest book is The Bible: A Biography. Her meditations on personal faith and religion (she calls herself a freelance monotheist) spark discussion — especially her take on <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/Bringing_Wisdom_of_Socrates_to_Modern_Dialogue__Karen_Armstrong
Socrates Penalty against Poland
Socrates' penalty against Poland, 2nd Round, World Cup 1986
http://wn.com/Socrates_Penalty_against_Poland
Socrates penalti de tacón (backheel penalty)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:09
- Published: 10 Feb 2010
- Uploaded: 27 Oct 2011
- Author: jesusmarrone
Socrates - Queen Of The Universe
Socrates - Queen Of The Universe HQ: www.youtube.com Album: Phos Year: 1974 Genre: Progressive Rock Vertigo Greece
http://wn.com/Socrates__Queen_Of_The_Universe
Ofutebol.com - Socrates
Socrates scores against Italy in the 1982 World Cup
http://wn.com/Ofutebolcom__Socrates
Socrates vs Chili 1981 By Zouzinho
Copyright Disclaimer Under Section 107 of the Copyright Act 1976, allowance is made for "fair use" for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing. Non-profit, educational or personal use tips the balance in favor of fair use. Socrates vs Chili
http://wn.com/Socrates_vs_Chili_1981_By_Zouzinho
Socrates Drank The Conium (Live 1999) Mountains
Socrates Drank The Conium greek band from their 1999 reunion concert. Very rare NET coverage.
http://wn.com/Socrates_Drank_The_Conium_Live_1999_Mountains
Socrates - Mountains
Socrates - Mountains HQ: www.youtube.com Album: Phos Year: 1974 Genre: Progressive Rock Vertigo Greece
http://wn.com/Socrates__Mountains
Socrates, Moral Hit Man
The blindness to violence that results from corruption...
http://wn.com/Socrates,_Moral_Hit_Man
Bettany Hughes Video Journal: Socrates, Sappho, the Aryans and Spartan Girls
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:21
- Published: 24 Aug 2010
- Uploaded: 22 Oct 2011
- Author: heritagekeymedia
( heritage-key.com ) Heritage Key catches up with Bettany Hughes in a London studio as she works on a new documentary about the Aryan civilisation. Talking about some of the exciting excavations taking place out in Siberia, on the Kazakhstan and Russian border, she explains the predicament of heads of states who visit the dig sites, trying to work out whether they want to be associated with the artefacts bearing swastika imagery being uncovered there. Bettany also talks about her recent BBC Radio 4 program on the Greek poet Sappho, and how she articulated the subject of love, and how her poetry speaks to her. She also discusses the significance of Socrates in history, the subject of a book which she has just completed.
http://wn.com/Bettany_Hughes_Video_Journal_Socrates,_Sappho,_the_Aryans_and_Spartan_Girls
photo: EC / EC
03 Nov 2011
Cannes was meant to showcase Sarkozy's statesmanship but on first day it seemed more akin to a gathering of head-scratchers France's president, Nicolas Sarkozy, looks into the distance as Germany's...
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Socrates Café offers deep thoughts
30 Oct 2011
The Charlotte Observer
Mehl Renner doesn't have all the answers. In fact, he's interested in knowing what others think about the challenges facing our nation and the world. He could scroll social media pages for gems of wisdom or tune in to daily newscasts for discussions on such topics as the proper role of governments...
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Noguchi Museum and Socrates Sculpture Park Present "Civic Action: A Vision for Long Island City"
13 Oct 2011
Inhabitat
Noguchi Museum and Socrates Sculpture Park have teamed up to create Civic Action: A Vision for Long Island City, a project bringing together four artists and their teams to create new approaches that'll foster growth and development in the ever changing neighborhood of Long Island City. Inhabitat...
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size: 4.2Kb
BOOK REVIEW: 'Socrates'
12 Oct 2011
The Washington Times
SOCRATES: A MAN FOR OUR TIMES By Paul Johnson Viking, $30, 198 pages Paul Johnson has written several concise biographies for general audiences about a wide array of landmark historic figures such as Churchill, Jesus, Napoleon and George Washington. In these minibiographies, he certainly has...
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size: 7.7Kb
Noguchi Museum and Socrates Sculpture Park exhibit artists' vision of Long Island City's future
11 Oct 2011
New York Daily News
Two cultural hubs in Long Island City are taking an artistic approach to preserving and improving their neighborhood. The Noguchi Museum and the Socrates Sculpture Park will unveil the ideas of four artists on the future of the community in the exhibit "Civic Action: A Vision for Long Island City."...
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size: 2.4Kb
ESPN
Brazilian legend Socrates says that he wants to see either Pep Guardiola or Johan Cruyff in charge of the national team as it has ''given up on its culture'' of attacking football. GettyImagesPep Guardiola has enjoyed...
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WorldNews.com
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. At Socrates' trial, Athenians seethed with anger and jealous rage. He had questioned Pericles's Golden Age of Athens. Along with criticizing Athenian lifestyles, ideals, values, and even the gods, Socrates questioned Pericles's limited democracy and...
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The Independent
Socrates, Bettany Hughes concedes in her introduction to The Hemlock Cup, is a "doughnut subject ... gloriously rich, with a whacking hole in the middle where the central character should be". Not much is actually known about the great sage of Ancient Greece, beyond the potentially unreliable...
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| Region | Western Philosophy |
|---|---|
| Era | Ancient philosophy |
| Color | #B0C4DE |
| Caption | Socrates |
| Birth date | c. 469 / 470 BC |
| Birth place | Deme Alopece, Athens |
| Death date | 399 BC (age approx. 71) |
| Death place | Athens |
| School tradition | Classical Greek |
| Main interests | Epistemology, ethics |
| Influenced by | Parmenides |
| Influenced | Most subsequent Western philosophy; more specifically, Plato, Aristotle, Aristippus, Antisthenes |
| Notable ideas | Socratic method, Socratic irony |
Through his portrayal in Plato's dialogues, Socrates has become renowned for his contribution to the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who also lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, or elenchus. The latter remains a commonly used tool in a wide range of discussions, and is a type of pedagogy in which a series of questions are asked not only to draw individual answers, but also to encourage fundamental insight into the issue at hand. It is Plato's Socrates that also made important and lasting contributions to the fields of epistemology and logic, and the influence of his ideas and approach remains strong in providing a foundation for much western philosophy that followed.
As one recent commentator has put it, Plato, the idealist, offers "an idol, a master figure, for philosophy. A Saint, a prophet of the 'Sun-God', a teacher condemned for his teachings as a heretic."
Biography
The Socratic problem
An accurate picture of the historical Socrates and his philosophical viewpoints is problematic: an issue known as the Socratic problem.As Socrates did not write philosophical texts, the knowledge of the man, his life, and his philosophy is entirely based on writings by his students and contemporaries. Foremost among them is Plato; however, works by Xenophon, Aristotle, and Aristophanes also provide important insights. The difficulty of finding the “real” Socrates arises because these works are often philosophical or dramatic texts rather than straightforward histories. Aside from Thucydides (who makes no mention of Socrates or philosophers in general) and Xenophon, there are in fact no straightforward histories contemporary with Socrates that dealt with his own time and place. A corollary of this is that sources that do mention Socrates do not necessarily claim to be historically accurate, and are often partisan (those who prosecuted and convicted Socrates have left no testament). Historians therefore face the challenge of reconciling the various texts that come from these men to create an accurate and consistent account of Socrates' life and work. The result of such an effort is not necessarily realistic, merely consistent.
Plato is frequently viewed as the most informative source about Socrates' life and philosophy. At the same time, however, many scholars believe that in some works Plato, being a literary artist, pushed his avowedly brightened-up version of "Socrates" far beyond anything the historical Socrates was likely to have done or said; and that Xenophon, being an historian, is a more reliable witness to the historical Socrates. It is a matter of much debate which Socrates Plato is describing at any given point—the historical figure, or Plato's fictionalization.
It is also clear from other writings and historical artifacts, however, that Socrates was not simply a character, or an invention, of Plato. The testimony of Xenophon and Aristotle, alongside some of Aristophanes' work (especially The Clouds), is useful in fleshing out a perception of Socrates beyond Plato's work.
Life
Details about Socrates can be derived from three contemporary sources: the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon (both devotees of Socrates), and the plays of Aristophanes. He has been depicted by some scholars, including Eric Havelock and Walter Ong, as a champion of oral modes of communication, standing up at the dawn of writing against its haphazard diffusion.Aristophanes' play The Clouds portrays Socrates as a clown who teaches his students how to bamboozle their way out of debt. Most of Aristophanes' works, however, function as parodies. Thus, it is presumed this characterization was also not literal.
According to Plato, Socrates' father was Sophroniscus and his mother Phaenarete, a midwife. Though characterized as unattractive in appearance and short in stature, Socrates married Xanthippe, who was much younger than him. She bore for him three sons, Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus. His friend Crito of Alopece criticized him for abandoning his sons when he refused to try to escape before his execution.
It is unclear how Socrates earned a living. Ancient texts seem to indicate that Socrates did not work. In Xenophon's Symposium, Socrates is reported as saying he devotes himself only to what he regards as the most important art or occupation: discussing philosophy. In The Clouds Aristophanes portrays Socrates as accepting payment for teaching and running a sophist school with Chaerephon, while in Plato's Apology and Symposium and in Xenophon's accounts, Socrates explicitly denies accepting payment for teaching. More specifically, in the Apology Socrates cites his poverty as proof he is not a teacher. According to Timon of Phlius and later sources, Socrates took over the profession of stonemasonry from his father. There was a tradition in antiquity, not credited by modern scholarship, that Socrates crafted the statues of the Three Graces, which stood near the Acropolis until the 2nd century AD.
Several of Plato's dialogues refer to Socrates' military service. Socrates says he served in the Athenian army during three campaigns: at Potidaea, Amphipolis, and Delium. In the Symposium Alcibiades describes Socrates' valour in the battles of Potidaea and Delium, recounting how Socrates saved his life in the former battle (219e-221b). Socrates' exceptional service at Delium is also mentioned in the Laches by the General after whom the dialogue is named (181b). In the Apology, Socrates compares his military service to his courtroom troubles, and says anyone on the jury who thinks he ought to retreat from philosophy must also think soldiers should retreat when it looks like they will be killed in battle.
In 406 he was a member of the Boule, and his tribe the Antiochis held the Prytany on the day the Generals of the Battle of Arginusae, who abandoned the slain and the survivors of foundered ships to pursue the defeated Spartan navy, were discussed. Socrates was the Epistates and resisted the unconstitutional demand for a collective trial to establish the guilt of all eight Generals, proposed by Callixeinus. Eventually, Socrates refused to be cowed by threats of impeachment and imprisonment and blocked the vote until his Prytany ended the next day, whereupon the six Generals who had returned to Athens were condemned to death.
In 404 the Thirty Tyrants sought to ensure the loyalty of those opposed to them by making them complicit in their activities. Socrates and four others were ordered to bring a certain Leon of Salamis from his home for unjust execution. Socrates quietly refused, his death averted only by the overthrow of the Tyrants soon afterwards.
Trial and death
Socrates lived during the time of the transition from the height of the Athenian hegemony to its decline with the defeat by Sparta and its allies in the Peloponnesian War. At a time when Athens sought to stabilize and recover from its humiliating defeat, the Athenian public may have been entertaining doubts about democracy as an efficient form of government. Socrates appears to have been a critic of democracy, and some scholars interpret his trial as an expression of political infighting.Claiming loyalty to his city, Socrates clashed with the current course of Athenian politics and society. He praises Sparta, archrival to Athens, directly and indirectly in various dialogues. But perhaps the most historically accurate of Socrates' offenses to the city was his position as a social and moral critic. Rather than upholding a status quo and accepting the development of what he perceived as immorality within his region, Socrates questioned the collective notion of "might makes right" that he felt was common in Greece during this period. Plato refers to Socrates as the "gadfly" of the state (as the gadfly stings the horse into action, so Socrates stung various Athenians), insofar as he irritated some people with considerations of justice and the pursuit of goodness. His attempts to improve the Athenians' sense of justice may have been the source of his execution.
According to Plato's Apology, Socrates' life as the "gadfly" of Athens began when his friend Chaerephon asked the oracle at Delphi if anyone was wiser than Socrates; the Oracle responded that none was wiser. Socrates believed that what the Oracle had said was a paradox, because he believed he possessed no wisdom whatsoever. He proceeded to test the riddle by approaching men considered wise by the people of Athens—statesmen, poets, and artisans—in order to refute the Oracle's pronouncement. Questioning them, however, Socrates concluded that, while each man thought he knew a great deal and was wise, in fact they knew very little and were not wise at all. Socrates realized that the Oracle was correct, in that while so-called wise men thought themselves wise and yet were not, he himself knew he was not wise at all, which, paradoxically, made him the wiser one since he was the only person aware of his own ignorance. Socrates' paradoxical wisdom made the prominent Athenians he publicly questioned look foolish, turning them against him and leading to accusations of wrongdoing. Socrates defended his role as a gadfly until the end: at his trial, when Socrates was asked to propose his own punishment, he suggests a wage paid by the government and free dinners for the rest of his life instead, to finance the time he spends as Athens' benefactor. He was, nevertheless, found guilty of both corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens and of "not believing in the gods of the state", and subsequently sentenced to death by drinking a mixture containing poison hemlock.
right|thumb|150px|Bust of Socrates in the Vatican Museum.According to Xenophon's story, Socrates purposefully gave a defiant defense to the jury because "he believed he would be better off dead". Xenophon goes on to describe a defense by Socrates that explains the rigors of old age, and how Socrates would be glad to circumvent them by being sentenced to death. It is also understood that Socrates also wished to die because he "actually believed the right time had come for him to die."
Xenophon and Plato agree that Socrates had an opportunity to escape, as his followers were able to bribe the prison guards. He chose to stay for several reasons: #He believed such a flight would indicate a fear of death, which he believed no true philosopher has. #If he fled Athens his teaching would fare no better in another country as he would continue questioning all he met and undoubtedly incur their displeasure. #Having knowingly agreed to live under the city's laws, he implicitly subjected himself to the possibility of being accused of crimes by its citizens and judged guilty by its jury. To do otherwise would have caused him to break his "social contract" with the state, and so harm the state, an act contrary to Socratic principle.
The full reasoning behind his refusal to flee is the main subject of the Crito.
Socrates' death is described at the end of Plato's Phaedo. Socrates turned down the pleas of Crito to attempt an escape from prison. After drinking the poison, he was instructed to walk around until his legs felt numb. After he lay down, the man who administered the poison pinched his foot. Socrates could no longer feel his legs. The numbness slowly crept up his body until it reached his heart. Shortly before his death, Socrates speaks his last words to Crito: "Crito, we owe a rooster to Asclepius. Please, don't forget to pay the debt." Asclepius was the Greek god for curing illness, and it is likely Socrates' last words meant that death is the cure—and freedom, of the soul from the body. Additionally, in Why Socrates Died: Dispelling the Myths, Robin Waterfield adds another interpretation of Socrates' last words. He suggests that Socrates was a voluntary scapegoat; his death was the purifying remedy for Athens’ misfortunes. In this view, the token of appreciation for Asclepius would represent a cure for the ailments of Athens.
Philosophy
Socratic method
Perhaps his most important contribution to Western thought is his dialectic method of inquiry, known as the Socratic method or method of "elenchus", which he largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts such as the Good and Justice. It was first described by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues. To solve a problem, it would be broken down into a series of questions, the answers to which gradually distill the answer a person would seek. The influence of this approach is most strongly felt today in the use of the scientific method, in which hypothesis is the first stage. The development and practice of this method is one of Socrates' most enduring contributions, and is a key factor in earning his mantle as the father of political philosophy, ethics or moral philosophy, and as a figurehead of all the central themes in Western philosophy.To illustrate the use of the Socratic method; a series of questions are posed to help a person or group to determine their underlying beliefs and the extent of their knowledge. The Socratic method is a negative method of hypothesis elimination, in that better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. It was designed to force one to examine one's own beliefs and the validity of such beliefs. In fact, Socrates once said, "I know you won't believe me, but the highest form of Human Excellence is to question oneself and others."
An alternative interpretation of the dialectic is that is a method for direct perception of the Form of the Good. Philosopher Karl Popper describes the dialectic as "the art of intellectual intuition, of visualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great Mystery behind the common man's everyday world of appearances." In a similar vein French philosopher Pierre Hadot suggests that the dialogues are a type of spiritual exercise. "Furthermore," writes Hadot, "in Plato's view, every dialectical exercise, precisely because it is an exercise of pure thought, subject to the demands of the Logos, turns the soul away from the sensible world, and allows it to convert itself towards the Good."
Philosophical beliefs
The beliefs of Socrates, as distinct from those of Plato, are difficult to discern. Little in the way of concrete evidence exists to demarcate the two. The lengthy theories given in most of the dialogues are those of Plato, and some scholars think Plato so adapted the Socratic style as to make the literary character and the philosopher himself impossible to distinguish. Others argue that he did have his own theories and beliefs, but there is much controversy over what these might have been, owing to the difficulty of separating Socrates from Plato and the difficulty of interpreting even the dramatic writings concerning Socrates. Consequently, distinguishing the philosophical beliefs of Socrates from those of Plato and Xenophon is not easy and it must be remembered that what is attributed to Socrates might more closely reflect the specific concerns of these thinkers.The matter is complicated because the historical Socrates seems to have been notorious for asking questions but not answering, claiming to lack wisdom concerning the subjects about which he questioned others.
If anything in general can be said about the philosophical beliefs of Socrates, it is that he was morally, intellectually, and politically at odds with his fellow Athenians. When he is on trial for heresy and corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, he uses his method of elenchos to demonstrate to the jurors that their moral values are wrong-headed. He tells them they are concerned with their families, careers, and political responsibilities when they ought to be worried about the "welfare of their souls". Socrates' belief in the immortality of the soul, and his conviction that the gods had singled him out as a divine emissary seemed to provoke, if not ridicule, at least annoyance. Socrates also questioned the Sophistic doctrine that arete (virtue) can be taught. He liked to observe that successful fathers (such as the prominent military general Pericles) did not produce sons of their own quality. Socrates argued that moral excellence was more a matter of divine bequest than parental nurture. This belief may have contributed to his lack of anxiety about the future of his own sons.
Socrates frequently says his ideas are not his own, but his teachers'. He mentions several influences: Prodicus the rhetor and Anaxagoras the scientist. Perhaps surprisingly, Socrates claims to have been deeply influenced by two women besides his mother: he says that Diotima, a witch and priestess from Mantinea, taught him all he knows about eros, or love; and that Aspasia, the mistress of Pericles, taught him the art of rhetoric. John Burnet argued that his principal teacher was the Anaxagorean Archelaus but his ideas were as Plato described them; Eric A. Havelock, on the other hand, considered Socrates' association with the Anaxagoreans to be evidence of Plato's philosophical separation from Socrates.
Socratic paradoxes
Many of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the historical Socrates have been characterized as "paradoxal" because they seem to conflict with common sense. The following are among the so-called Socratic Paradoxes:The phrase Socratic paradox can also refer to a self-referential paradox, originating in Socrates' phrase, "I know that I know nothing noble and good".
Knowledge
One of the best known sayings of Socrates is "I only know that I know nothing". The conventional interpretation of this remark is that Socrates' wisdom was limited to an awareness of his own ignorance. Socrates believed wrongdoing was a consequence of ignorance and those who did wrong knew no better. The one thing Socrates consistently claimed to have knowledge of was "the art of love", which he connected with the concept of "the love of wisdom", i.e., philosophy. He never actually claimed to be wise, only to understand the path a lover of wisdom must take in pursuing it. It is debatable whether Socrates believed humans (as opposed to gods like Apollo) could actually become wise. On the one hand, he drew a clear line between human ignorance and ideal knowledge; on the other, Plato's Symposium (Diotima's Speech) and Republic (Allegory of the Cave) describe a method for ascending to wisdom.In Plato's Theaetetus (150a), Socrates compares himself to a true matchmaker (προμνηστικός promnestikós), as distinguished from a panderer (προᾰγωγός proagogos). This distinction is echoed in Xenophon's Symposium (3.20), when Socrates jokes about his certainty of being able to make a fortune, if he chose to practice the art of pandering. For his part as a philosophical interlocutor, he leads his respondent to a clearer conception of wisdom, although he claims he is not himself a teacher (Apology). His role, he claims, is more properly to be understood as analogous to a midwife (μαῖα maia). Socrates explains that he is himself barren of theories, but knows how to bring the theories of others to birth and determine whether they are worthy or mere "wind eggs" (ἀνεμιαῖον anemiaion). Perhaps significantly, he points out that midwives are barren due to age, and women who have never given birth are unable to become midwives; they would have no experience or knowledge of birth and would be unable to separate the worthy infants from those that should be left on the hillside to be exposed. To judge this, the midwife must have experience and knowledge of what she is judging.
Virtue
Socrates believed the best way for people to live was to focus on self-development rather than the pursuit of material wealth. He always invited others to try to concentrate more on friendships and a sense of true community, for Socrates felt this was the best way for people to grow together as a populace. His actions lived up to this: in the end, Socrates accepted his death sentence when most thought he would simply leave Athens, as he felt he could not run away from or go against the will of his community; as mentioned above, his reputation for valor on the battlefield was without reproach.The idea that humans possessed certain virtues formed a common thread in Socrates' teachings. These virtues represented the most important qualities for a person to have, foremost of which were the philosophical or intellectual virtues. Socrates stressed that "virtue was the most valuable of all possessions; the ideal life was spent in search of the Good. Truth lies beneath the shadows of existence, and it is the job of the philosopher to show the rest how little they really know."
Politics
It is often argued that Socrates believed "ideals belong in a world only the wise man can understand", making the philosopher the only type of person suitable to govern others. In Plato's dialogue the Republic, Socrates was in no way subtle about his particular beliefs on government. He openly objected to the democracy that ran Athens during his adult life. It was not only Athenian democracy: Socrates objected to any form of government that did not conform to his ideal of a perfect republic led by philosophers, and Athenian government was far from that. It is, however, possible that the Socrates of Plato's Republic is colored by Plato's own views. During the last years of Socrates' life, Athens was in continual flux due to political upheaval. Democracy was at last overthrown by a junta known as the Thirty Tyrants, led by Plato's relative, Critias, who had been a student of Socrates. The Tyrants ruled for about a year before the Athenian democracy was reinstated, at which point it declared an amnesty for all recent events.Socrates' opposition to democracy is often denied, and the question is one of the biggest philosophical debates when trying to determine exactly what Socrates believed. The strongest argument of those who claim Socrates did not actually believe in the idea of philosopher kings is that the view is expressed no earlier than Plato's Republic, which is widely considered one of Plato's "Middle" dialogues and not representative of the historical Socrates' views. Furthermore, according to Plato's Apology of Socrates, an "early" dialogue, Socrates refused to pursue conventional politics; he often stated he could not look into other's matters or tell people how to live their lives when he did not yet understand how to live his own. He believed he was a philosopher engaged in the pursuit of Truth, and did not claim to know it fully. Socrates' acceptance of his death sentence, after his conviction by the Boule (Senate), can also be seen to support this view. It is often claimed much of the anti-democratic leanings are from Plato, who was never able to overcome his disgust at what was done to his teacher. In any case, it is clear Socrates thought the rule of the Thirty Tyrants was at least as objectionable as Democracy; when called before them to assist in the arrest of a fellow Athenian, Socrates refused and narrowly escaped death before the Tyrants were overthrown. He did however fulfill his duty to serve as Prytanis when a trial of a group of Generals who presided over a disastrous naval campaign were judged; even then he maintained an uncompromising attitude, being one of those who refused to proceed in a manner not supported by the laws, despite intense pressure. Judging by his actions, he considered the rule of the Thirty Tyrants less legitimate than the Democratic Senate that sentenced him to death.
Mysticism
In the Dialogues of Plato, Socrates often seems to support a mystical side, discussing reincarnation and the mystery religions; however, this is generally attributed to Plato. Regardless, this cannot be dismissed out of hand, as we cannot be sure of the differences between the views of Plato and Socrates; in addition, there seem to be some corollaries in the works of Xenophon. In the culmination of the philosophic path as discussed in Plato's Symposium and Republic, one comes to the Sea of Beauty or to the sight of the form of the Good in an experience akin to mystical revelation; only then can one become wise. (In the Symposium, Socrates credits his speech on the philosophic path to his teacher, the priestess Diotima, who is not even sure if Socrates is capable of reaching the highest mysteries.) In the Meno, he refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries, telling Meno he would understand Socrates' answers better if only he could stay for the initiations next week. Further confusions result from the nature of these sources, insofar as the Platonic Dialogues are arguably the work of an artist-philosopher, whose meaning does not volunteer itself to the passive reader nor again the lifelong scholar. Plato himself was a playwright before taking up the study of philosophy. His works are, indeed, dialogues; Plato's choice of this, the medium of Sophocles, Euripides, and the fictions of theatre, may reflect the interpretable nature of his writings. What is more, the first word of nearly all Plato's works is a, or the, significant term for that respective study, and is used with the commonly approved definition in mind. Finally, the Phaedrus and the Symposium each allude to Socrates' coy delivery of philosophic truths in conversation; the Socrates of the Phaedrus goes so far as to demand such dissembling and mystery in all writing. The mysticism we often find in Plato, appearing here and there and couched in some enigmatic tract of symbol and irony, is often at odds with the mysticism Plato's Socrates expounds in some other dialogue. These mystical resolutions to hitherto rigorous inquiries and analyses fail to satisfy caring readers, without fail. Whether they would fail to satisfy readers who understood them is another question, and will not, in all probability, ever be resolved.Perhaps the most interesting facet of this is Socrates' reliance on what the Greeks called his "daemonic sign", an averting (ἀποτρεπτικός apotreptikos) inner voice Socrates heard only when he was about to make a mistake. It was this sign that prevented Socrates from entering into politics. In the Phaedrus, we are told Socrates considered this to be a form of "divine madness", the sort of insanity that is a gift from the gods and gives us poetry, mysticism, love, and even philosophy itself. Alternately, the sign is often taken to be what we would call "intuition"; however, Socrates' characterization of the phenomenon as "daemonic" suggests its origin is divine, mysterious, and independent of his own thoughts.
Satirical playwrights
He was prominently lampooned in Aristophanes' comedy The Clouds, produced when Socrates was in his mid-forties; he said at his trial (according to Plato) that the laughter of the theater was a harder task to answer than the arguments of his accusers. Søren Kierkegaard believed this play was a more accurate representation of Socrates than those of his students. In the play, Socrates is ridiculed for his dirtiness, which is associated with the Laconizing fad; also in plays by Callias, Eupolis, and Telecleides. Other comic poets who lampooned Socrates include Mnesimachus and Ameipsias. In all of these, Socrates and the Sophists were criticised for "the moral dangers inherent in contemporary thought and literature".
Prose sources
Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle are the main sources for the historical Socrates; however, Xenophon and Plato were direct disciples of Socrates, and presumably, they idealize him; however, they wrote the only continuous descriptions of Socrates that have come down to us. Aristotle refers frequently, but in passing, to Socrates in his writings. Almost all of Plato's works center around Socrates. However, Plato's later works appear to be more his own philosophy put into the mouth of his mentor.
The Socratic dialogues
The Socratic Dialogues are a series of dialogues written by Plato and Xenophon in the form of discussions between Socrates and other persons of his time, or as discussions between Socrates' followers over his concepts. Plato's Phaedo is an example of this latter category. Although his Apology is a monologue delivered by Socrates, it is usually grouped with the Dialogues.The Apology professes to be a record of the actual speech Socrates delivered in his own defense at the trial. In the Athenian jury system, an "apology" is composed of three parts: a speech, followed by a counter-assessment, then some final words. "Apology" is a transliteration, not a translation, of the Greek apologia, meaning "defense"; in this sense it is not apologetic according to our contemporary use of the term.
Plato generally does not place his own ideas in the mouth of a specific speaker; he lets ideas emerge via the Socratic Method, under the guidance of Socrates. Most of the dialogues present Socrates applying this method to some extent, but nowhere as completely as in the Euthyphro. In this dialogue, Socrates and Euthyphro go through several iterations of refining the answer to Socrates' question, "...What is the pious, and what the impious?"
In Plato's Dialogues, learning appears as a process of remembering. The soul, before its incarnation in the body, was in the realm of Ideas (very similar to the Platonic "Forms"). There, it saw things the way they truly are, rather than the pale shadows or copies we experience on earth. By a process of questioning, the soul can be brought to remember the ideas in their pure form, thus bringing wisdom.
Especially for Plato's writings referring to Socrates, it is not always clear which ideas brought forward by Socrates (or his friends) actually belonged to Socrates and which of these may have been new additions or elaborations by Plato – this is known as the Socratic Problem. Generally, the early works of Plato are considered to be close to the spirit of Socrates, whereas the later works – including Phaedo and the Republic – are considered to be possibly products of Plato's elaborations.
Legacy
Immediate influence
Immediately, the students of Socrates set to work both on exercising their perceptions of his teachings in politics and also on developing many new philosophical schools of thought. Some of Athens' controversial and anti-democratic tyrants were contemporary or posthumous students of Socrates including Alcibiades and Critias. Critias' cousin, Plato would go on to found the Academy in 385 BC, which gained so much notoriety that 'Academy' became the base word for educational institutions in later European languages such as English, French, and Italian. Plato's protege, another important figure of the Classical era, Aristotle went on to tutor Alexander the Great and also to found his own school in 335 BC- the Lyceum, whose name also now means an educational institution.While Socrates was shown to demote the importance of institutional knowledge like mathematics or science in relation to the human condition in his Dialogues, Plato would emphasize it with metaphysical overtones mirroring that of Pythagoras – the former who would dominate Western thought well into the Renaissance. Aristotle himself was as much of a philosopher as he was a scientist with rudimentary work in the fields of biology and physics.
Socratic thought along the lines of challenging conventions, especially in stressing a simplistic way of living, became divorced from Plato's more detached and philosophical pursuits but was inherited heavily by one of Socrates' older and diehard students, Antisthenes who became another originator of a philosophy in the years after Socrates' death – Cynicism. Antisthenes attacked Plato and Alcibiades over what he deemed as their betrayal of Socrates' tenets in his writings.
The idea of asceticism being hand in hand with an ethical life or one with piety, ignored by Plato and Aristotle and somewhat dealt with by the Cynics, formed the core of another philosophy in 281 BC – Stoicism when Zeno of Citium would discover Socrates' works and then learn from Crates, a Cynic philosopher. None of the schools however, would inherit his tendency to openly associate with and respect women or the regular citizen.
Later historical effects
While some of the later contributions of Socrates to Hellenistic Era culture and philosophy as well as the Roman Era have been lost to time, his teachings began a resurgence in both medieval Europe and the Islamic Middle East alongside those of Aristotle and Stoicism. Socrates is mentioned in the dialogue Kuzari by Jewish philosopher and rabbi Yehuda Halevi in which a Jew instructs the Khazar king about Judaism. al-Kindi, a well-known Arabic philosopher, introduced and tried to reconcile Socrates and Hellenistic philosophy to an Islamic audience.Socrates' stature in Western philosophy returned in full force with the Renaissance and the Age of Reason in Europe when political theory began to resurface under those like Locke and Hobbes. Voltaire even went so far as to write a satirical play about the Trial of Socrates. There were a number of paintings about his life including Socrates Tears Alcibiades from the Embrace of Sensual Pleasure by Jean-Baptiste Regnault and The Death of Socrates by Jacques-Louis David in the later 18th century.
To this day, the Socratic Method is still used in classroom and law school discourse to expose underlying issues in both subject and the speaker. He has been rewarded with accolades ranging from numerous mentions in pop culture such as the movie Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure and a Greek rock band to numerous busts in academic institutions in recognition of his contribution to education.
Criticism
Evaluation and reaction to Socrates has been undertaken with both historical and philosophical inquiry from the time of his death to the present day with a multitude of conclusions and perspectives. One of the initial criticisms levied against the philosopher was presented at his trial – that he was not the proponent of a philosophy but an individual with a method of undermining the fabric of Athenian society, a charge carried by the 500-man jury of Athenians that sentenced him to death. Although he was not directly prosecuted for his connection to Critias, leader of the Spartan-backed Thirty Tyrants, he was seen as a controversial figure, who mentored oligarchs who became abusive tyrants, and undermined Athenian democracy. The Sophist establishment he railed at in life survived him, but by the 3rd century BC, was rapidly overtaken by the many philosophical schools of thought that Socrates influenced.Socrates' death is considered iconic and his status as a martyr of philosophy overshadowed most contemporary and posthumous criticism at the time. However, Xenophon attempts to explain that Socrates purposely welcomed the hemlock due to his old age using the arguably self-destructive testimony to the jury as evidence. Direct criticism of Socrates almost disappears at this point, but there is a noticeable preference for Plato or Aristotle over the elements of Socratic philosophy distinct from those of his students, even into the Middle Ages.
Modern scholarship holds that, with so much of the philosopher obscured and possibly altered by Plato, it is impossible to gain a clear picture of Socrates amidst all the seeming contradictions. That both Cynicism and Stoicism, which carried heavy influence from Socratic thought, were unlike or even contrary to Platonism further illustrates this. The ambiguity and lack of reliability serves as the modern basis of criticism – that it is near impossible to know the real Socrates. Some controversy also exists about claims of Socrates exempting himself from the homosexual customs of ancient Greece and not believing in the Olympian gods to the point of being monotheistic or if this was an attempt by later Medieval scholars to reconcile him with the morals of the era. However, it is still commonly taught and held with little exception that Socrates is the founder of modern Western philosophy, to the point that philosophers before him are referred to as pre-Socratic.
Ahmadiyya viewpoint
Mirza Tahir Ahmad (the fourth Caliph of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community) argued in his book Revelation, Rationality, Knowledge & Truth that Socrates was a prophet of the ancient Greeks. The apparent prophetic qualities of Socrates are indeed a subject for debate. His constant reference to the oracle and how it performs the active function of a moral compass by preventing him from unseemly acts could easily be taken as a reference to – or substitute for revelation. Similarly, Socrates often refers to God in the singular as opposed to the plural and actively rejected the Greek pantheon of Gods and Goddesses unless citing them as examples of their falseness.
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Category:Ancient Greek philosophers Category:Ancient Athenian philosophers Category:5th-century BC philosophers Category:Classical humanists Category:Irony theorists Category:Religious skeptics Category:Epistemologists Category:People executed by poison Category:Ancient Greeks who were executed Category:Forced suicides Category:Executed philosophers Category:Ancient Greeks executed for atheism or sacrilege Category:4th-century BC executions Category:470 BC births Category:399 BC deaths
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