The politics of Iran take place in a framework of theocracy guided by an Islamist ideology. The December 1979 constitution, and its 1989 amendment, define the political, economic, and social order of the Islamic Republic of Iran, declaring that Shi'a Islam of the Twelver school of thought is Iran's official religion.

Iran has an elected president, parliament (or Majlis), and an "Assembly of Experts" (which elects the Supreme Leader of Iran), and local councils. All of them must be selected by the Guardian Council before being elected. In addition it has "shadow" or "parallel" institutions intended to oversee the elected officials and "protect the state's Islamic character". The majority of the Iranian political parties are banned.

|Supreme Leader |Ali Khamenei | CCA |4 June 1989 |- |President |Mahmoud Ahmadinejad | ABII |10 August 2005 |}

Political conditions

As in almost all revolutions, the early days of the regime were characterized by political turmoil. In November 1979 the American embassy was seized and its occupants taken hostage and kept captive for 444 days. The eight year Iran–Iraq War killed hundreds of thousands and cost the country billions of dollars. By mid-1982, a succession of power struggles eliminated first the center of political spectrum and then the leftists leaving the Ayatollah Khomeini and his supporters in power.

Iran's post-revolution challenges have included the imposition of economic sanctions and suspension of diplomatic relations with Iran by the United States because of the hostage crisis and other acts of terrorism that the U.S. government and some others have accused Iran of sponsoring. Emigration has cost Iran "two to four million entrepreneurs, professionals, technicians, and skilled craftspeople (and their capital)." For this and other reasons Iran's economy has not prospered. Poverty rose in absolute terms by nearly 45% during the first 6 years of the Islamic revolution and per capita income has yet to reach pre-revolutionary levels.

The Islamic Republic Party was Iran's ruling political party and for some years its only political party until its dissolution in 1987. Iran had no functioning political parties until the Executives of Construction Party formed in 1994 to run for the fifth parliamentary elections, mainly out of executive body of the government close to the then-president Akbar Hashemi-Rafsanjani. After the election of Mohammad Khatami in 1997, more parties started to work, mostly of the reformist movement and opposed by hard-liners. This led to incorporation and official activity of many other groups, including hard-liners. The Iranian Government is opposed by a few armed political groups, including the Mojahedin-e-Khalq, the People's Fedayeen, and the Kurdish Democratic Party.

''For other political parties see List of political parties in Iran.''

Supreme Leader

The most powerful political office in the Islamic Republic is that of the Supreme Leader, of which there have been two: the founder of the Republic, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, and his successor, Ali Khamenei.

Historically the Supreme Leader has remained aloof from election politics. However, in the 2009 election, some of the pronouncements by Ali Khamenei were perceived by many to favor the incumbent.

The Leader appoints the heads of many powerful posts - the commanders of the armed forces, the director of the national radio and television network, the heads of the major religious foundations, the prayer leaders in city mosques, and the members of national security councils dealing with defence and foreign affairs. He also appoints the chief judge, the chief prosecutor, special tribunals and, with the help of the chief judge, half of the 12 jurists of the Guardian Council – the powerful body that decides both what bills may become law and who may run for president or parliament. Also according to Iranian constitution the Surpreme Leader asserts the authority of the president. He can veto the laws made by the parliament and traditionally he permits for presidential candidates to proclaim their candidacy. According to a common opinion in Iran, the Supreme Leader is the one who is over the law not under. According to a statement by a prayer leader in Tehran, even he can abolish the legality of a marriage between a couple. This is of course a religious point of view that is not openly expressed in the laws but a de facto opinion that traditionally held by many fanatics and leaders in legal parties.

==Executive branch== The Constitution defines the President as the highest state authority ''after'' the Supreme Leader. The President is elected by universal suffrage, by those 18 years old and older , for a term of four years. Presidential candidates must be approved by the Council of Guardians prior to running. After being elected, the president must be appointed by the Supreme Leader. The whole legality of a president stands on the appointment. The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader. The President appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature. Currently, 10 Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of 21 ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature. Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence.

Legislative branch

The current legislature of Iran is unicameral. Before the Iranian Revolution, the legislature was bicameral, with the senate (upper house) half elected, half appointed by the Shah. The senate was removed in the new constitution.

Parliament

The Parliament of Iran comprises 290 members elected for four-year terms. The Parliament drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All Parliament candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Council of Guardians.

Guardian Council

The Guardian Council is composed of 12 jurists, including six clerics appointed by the Supreme Leader, and six jurists elected by the Majles from among the Muslim jurists nominated by the Head of the Judicial System. The Council interprets the constitution and may reject bills from parliament deemed incompatible with the ''constitution'' or ''Sharia'' (Islamic law). These are referred back to parliament for revision. In a controversial exercise of its authority, the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran's constitution to veto parliamentary candidates.

As of the early 1990s, the Guardian Council vets (approves) candidates for national election in Iran.

According to the CIA World Factbook, The Guardian Council is a part of the Executive branch of the government.

Expediency Council

The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between the Majlis and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.

Its members include heads of the three government branches, the clerical members of the Guardian Council and various other members appointed by the supreme leader for three-year terms. Cabinet members and parliamentary leaders also serve as temporary members when issues under their jurisdictions are under review.

Judicial branch

The Supreme Leader appoints the head of the Judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the supreme court and the chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay people. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court’s rulings are final and cannot be appealed. It has also been known to organizations such as the United Nations and the World Criminal Court that a very complex system of bribery has developed because of the high crime rate.

Assembly of Experts

The Assembly of Experts, which meets for at least two days, twice annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. Based on the laws approved by the first Assembly, the Council of Guardians has to determine candidates' eligibility using a written examination. The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time. As all of their meetings and notes are strictly confidential, the Assembly has never been known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.

Political parties and elections

:''More info: Iranian presidential election, 2009'' For the parliamentary elections of February 20, 2004, the Ministry of Interior Affairs announced a 50% turnout, the lowest in any general election since 1979. It was disputed by the Guardian Council, which claimed the result was closer to 60%. Conservative forces received 54% (156 seats), reformists received 14% of the vote (40 seats), and independents (34 seats); 60 seats were up for runoff election in May 2004. In the run-up to the election many reformist candidates, including about 80 members of the outgoing parliament, were disqualified by the Guardian Council; more than a 100 MPs protested by staging a sit-in in the parliament that lasted for about 3 weeks and ended to no avail. About 120 MPs then resigned and major reformist parties and groups stated they will not take part in the election but did not boycott it. The crisis resulted in a crack in the reformist front, when the Militant Clerics League, of which President Khatami is a member, announced they will participate in the election. :''More info: Iranian legislative election, 2008''

Political pressure groups and leaders

Active student groups include the pro-reform "Office for Strengthening Unity" and "the Union of Islamic Student Societies'; Groups that generally support the Islamic Republic include Ansar-e Hizballah, The Iranian Islamic Students Association, Muslim Students Following the Line of the Imam, Islam's Students, and the Islamic Coalition Association. The conservative power base is said to be made up of a "web of Basiji militia members, families of war martyrs, some members of the Revolutionary Guard, some government employees, some members of the urban and rural poor, and conservative-linked foundations."

opposition groups include the Freedom Movement of Iran and the Nation of Iran party;

armed political groups that have been almost completely repressed by the government include Mojahedin-e Khalq Organization (MEK), People's Fedayeen, Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan; the Society for the Defense of Freedom.

Iranian opposition groups have been severely repressed by the regime, an example being the Freedom party of Iran that is now "forbidden". Repression of opposition groups is becoming more harsh as of mid 2007. Exile parties however, are not controlled by the regime and are becoming stronger and more well recognised among the diaspora.

Military

The military and the Corps of the Guardians (often mistranslated as ''guards'') of the Islamic Revolution (or ''Sepaah'' in Persian meaning ''the Corps'') are charged with defending Iran's borders and ''Baseej'' (Persian for ''Mobilization'') militia are charged with maintaining both external and internal security.

Administrative divisions

Iran consists of 30 provinces (''ostaan-haa'', singular: ''ostan''): Ardabil, Azarbayjan-e Gharbi, Azarbayjan-e Sharqi, Bushehr, Chahar Mahall va Bakhtiari, Esfahan, Fars, Gilan, Golestan, Hamadan, Hormozgan, Ilam, Kerman, Kermanshahan, North Khorasan, Khorasan, South Khorasan, Khuzestan, Kohkiluyeh va Buyer Ahmadi, Kordestan, Lorestan, Markazi, Mazandaran, Qom, Qazvin, Semnan, Sistan va Baluchestan, Tehran, Yazd, Zanjan. The provinces are each headed by a governor general. The provinces are further divided into counties, districts, and villages.

Local government

Local councils are elected by public vote to 4-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. According to article 7 in Iran's Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are "decision-making and administrative organs of the State". This section of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local council elections were held across the country. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying the social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies; planning and coordinating national participation in the implementation of social, economic, constructive, cultural, educational and other welfare affairs.

Public finance and fiscal policy

Budget

In Iran’s state budget for the Iranian calendar year 1388 (2009–2010), of the $102 billion earmarked for government spending,

53% will be funded through revenues from the sale of crude oil and gas,

28% will come from taxes and the remaining

19% from other sources such as the privatization program.

Oil revenues are calculated based on the average price of $37.50 per barrel at the US Dollar conversion rate of 9,500 Rials. Any surplus revenues from the sale of crude oil and gas are to be paid into the Oil Stabilization Fund (OSF). The approved ''"total budget"'', including state owned commercial companies, was $295 billion for the same period. Iran balances its external accounts around $75 per barrel. A unique feature of Iran's economy is the large size of the religious foundations whose combined budgets make up more than 30% that of the central government.

The public budget was $165 billion (1,770 trillion rials) in Iranian year 2011-2012. The Iranian Parliament also approved a total budget of $500 billion (5,170 trillion rials) that aside from the government, or public budget also includes spending for state-owned companies, also called "total budget". The budget is based on an oil price of $80 per barrel. The value of the US dollar is estimated at IRR 10,500 for the same period. the 2011-total budget shows a 45-percent increase compared with that of 2011 which stood at $368 billion.

The Government seeks to increase the share of tax revenue in the budget through the implementation of the so-called “economic reform plan” through more effective tax collection from businesses. According to the head of the Department of Statistics of Iran, if the rules of budgeting were observed in this very structure, the government could save at least 30 to 35 percent on its expenses.

Revenues

In 2004, about 45 percent of the government's budget came from exports of oil and natural gas revenues, although this varies with the fluctuations in world petroleum markets and 31 percent came from taxes and fees. Overall, an estimated 50 percent of Iran’s GDP was exempt from taxes in FY 2004.

The budget for Iranian year 1389 (2010–2011), which starts on March 21, amounts to $368.4bn, representing an increase of 31 per cent on the previous year and is based on a projected oil price of $60 a barrel compared with just $37.50 last year. As of 2010, oil income accounts for 80% of Iran's foreign currency revenues and 60% of the nation's overall budget.

Expenditures

Because of changes in the classification of budgetary figures, comparison of categories among different years is not possible. However, since the Revolution the government’s general budget payments have averaged:

59 percent for social affairs,

17 percent for economic affairs,

15 percent for national defense, and

13 percent for general affairs.

For a breakdown of expenditures for social and economic purposes, see attached chart.

In FY 2004, central government expenditures were divided as follows:

current expenditures, 59 percent, and

capital expenditures, 32 percent.

Other items (earmarked expenditures, foreign-exchange losses, coverage of liabilities of letters of credit, and net lending) accounted for the remainder.

Among current expenditures, wages and salaries accounted for 36 percent; subsidies and transfers to households accounted for 22 percent (not including ''indirect'' subsidies). Earmarked expenditures totaled 13 percent of the central government total. Between FY 2000 and FY 2004, total expenditures and net lending accounted for about 26 percent of GDP. According to the Vice President for Parliamentary Affairs, Iran's subsidy reforms would save 20 percent of the country's budget.

! Year 1386 (2007–08)	(realized)	! % of nominal GDP	(2007–08)	! Year 1387 (2008–09)	(approved budget)	! Year 1387 (2008–09)	(realized)	! Revenues and payments
191,815.3	11.4%	217,155	239,741.4	[[Labor and tax laws in Iran
106,387.8		121,598.1	139,597.1	(+) Other revenues (i.e. Public corporations’ dividend, Government services & other fees)
''298,203.1''		''338,753.1''	''379,338.5''	= ''Revenues''
- 421,334.1	16.1%	- 621,126	- 564,290.0
''-123,131''	''-4.7%''	''-282,372.9''	''-184,951.5''	= (+/-) ''Operational balance''
173,519.1		298,865.6	215,650.3
1,272.7		3,095	986.5	(+) Others (Value of movable and immovable properties)
''174,791.8''		''301,960.6''	''216,636.7''	= ''Transfer of capital assets''
- 147,715.8 (-157,215.8)(2)	5.6%	- 251,573.8	- 213,495.8	(–) Acquisition of capital assets/development expenditures (in Transport, Urban and Rural Development and Housing Provision Plans in the Framework of Welfare and Social Security System)
''27,076.1'' ''(17,576.1)''(2)		''50,386.8''	''3,140.9''	= ''Net transfer of capital assets''
-123,131	-4.7%	-282,372.9	-184,951.5	+ Operational balance (see above for details)
156,614.1 (166,114.0)(2)		267,771.6	218,260.0	Transfer of financial assets (i.e. Privatization proceeds, World Bank facilities, Sale of participation papers & National development fund utilization)
- 60,559.2		- 35,785.5	- 36,449.4	(–) Acquisition of financial assets (i.e. debt service

Notes: 1) Since 2002, the latest taxes and other revenues”, and “oil sales” which had earlier been classified as revenue are now referred to as "transfer of capital assets".2) In 2007/08, it includes budget supplement at Rls. 9,500 billion.3) The government budget does not include state revenues and expenses derived from state owned commercial entreprises. 4) The government budget does not account for subsides paid to state owned commercial enterprise. See also Subsidy reform plan. 5) Excluding special revenues and expenditures and the figure for transparency in the price (subsidy) of energy bearers. 6) For "Total Government Budget" (including state owned commercial companies), see Statistical Center of Iran.

File:Military expenditures-Iran.png|Military expenditures (% GDP) File:IRANbalanceofpayment.jpg|Iran's balance of payment (2003-2007) File:Debt service-Iran.png|Iran's total debt service as percent of exports of goods services and income increased sixfold between 1990 and 1997 File:IRAN-GDP-real-growth.jpg|Iran's oil vs non-oil real GDP growth projections.

Complexity of the system

According to current election laws, the Guardian Council oversees and approves electoral candidates for most national elections in Iran. The Guardian Council has 12 members, six clerics, appointed by the Supreme Leader and six jurists, elected by the Majlis from among the Muslim jurists nominated by the Head of the Judicial System, who is appointed by the Supreme Leader. According to the current law, the Guardian Council approves the Assembly of Experts candidates, which in turn supervise and elect the Supreme Leader.

The reformists say this system creates a closed circle of power. Iranian reformists, such as Mohammad-Ali Abtahi have considered this to be the core legal obstacle for the reform movement in Iran.

International organization participation

CP, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, G-15, G-24, G-77, GECF, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, International Maritime Organization, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, OPEC, PCA, SCO (observer), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WIPO, WFTU, WEF, WHO, WMO, WTO (observer)

See also

International Rankings of Iran in Politics

List of Iranian officials

Nuclear program of Iran

Constitution of Iran

U.S.-Iran relations

Basij

Iranian Foreign Affairs

Iran-Israel relations

Iran-Contra Affair

Iran-Iraq War

Prime Minister of Iran

Haghani Circle and Politics of Iran

Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran

Human rights in the Imperial State of Iran (1925–1979)

Human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran (1979–present)

1988 Massacre of Iranian Prisoners

Censorship in Iran

National Council of Resistance of Iran

People's Mujahedin of Iran

Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran

Iranian reform movement

Economy of Iran

Corruption in Iran

References

Literature

Ray Takeyh: ''Hidden Iran - Paradox and Power in the Islamic Republic'', New York 2006, ISBN

External links

Government Ministries of Iran

Ministry of Science, Research and Technology

Ministry of Health and Medical Education

Ministry of Agriculture

Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance

Ministry of Commerce

Ministry of Energy

Ministry of Petroleum

Ministry of Housing and Urban Development

Ministry of Industry and Mines

Ministry of Defense and Armed Forces

Ministry of Roads and Transportation

Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs

Ministry of Interior

Ministry of Information and Communication Technology, 1 2

Ministry of Cooperation

Ministry of Education

Ministry of Economic Affairs and Finance

Other government links

Secretariat of The High Council of Iran Free Trade Industrial Zones

Islamic Republic of Iran Central Bank

Secretariat of The High Council of The Cultural Revolution

Official Spokesman of the Islamic Republic of Iran

Islamic Republic of Iran Atomic Energy Organization

Islamic Republic of Iran Police Forces

Islamic Republic of Iran Academy of The Arts

Islamic Republic of Iran Geological Survey Organization

Islamic Republic of Iran Management and Planning Organization

Islamic Republic of Iran Organization of Welfare

Islamic Republic of Iran National Youth Organization

Islamic Republic of Iran Judiciary Public Relations Bureau

Islamic Republic of Iran Center for Affairs of Women's Participation

Islamic Republic of Iran Academy of Medical Sciences

Islamic Republic of Iran Cultural Heritage Organization

Islamic Republic of Iran Headquarters for Combating Drugs

Islamic Republic of Iran Academy of Persian Language and Literature

Islamic Republic of Iran Department of Environment

Islamic Republic of Iran International Center for Dialogue Among Civilizations

Islamic Republic of Iran Red Crescent Society

Islamic Republic of Iran Physical Education Organization

Islamic Republic of Iran Academy of Sciences

Other

Annual Reviews - Public finance and sectorial report by the Central Bank of Iran.

Memorandum of the foreign trade regime of Iran - 145-page official PDF document describing all Ministries and institutes affiliated to the Government of Iran

Iran Basic Addresses

Iran Center for Strategic Studies

Tehran International Studies and Research Institute

The Network of Iranian law in Persian, English and French

Constitutional law in French

Iranian law in English

Iranian law in French

Video Archive of Iranian Politics

Guide: How Iran is Ruled from BBC News, includes flowchart

General

Power of Iran’s Supreme Leader Dwarfs Presidency by REALITE-EU

Democracy in Iran by BBC

Iran who hold the power- B.B.C. In depth.

;Videos

Iran Election System-Part I Part II Part III (PressTV video)

Politics of Iran-Part I Part II Part III (PressTV 2010 video)

Iran's political establishment (PressTV 2011 video)

Iran's budget bill for the 2011-fiscal year (PressTV 2011 video)

Category:Government of Iran Category:Economy of Iran

bn:ইরানের রাজনীতি bg:Държавно устройство на Иран da:Irans politik de:Politisches System des Iran es:Política de Irán fa:سیاست در ایران fr:Politique de l'Iran he:פוליטיקה של איראן mk:Политика на Иран ms:Politik Iran nl:Politiek in Iran ja:イランの政治 pl:Ustrój polityczny Iranu pt:Política do Irão ru:Государственный строй Ирана sv:Irans politik

{{ethnic group| Geographic distribution of modern Iranian languages: Persian (green), Pashto (purple) and Kurdish (turquoise), Lurish (red), Baluchi (Yellow), as well as smaller communities of other Iranian languages. |poptime= 160 million Indigenous ethnicities and emigrant communities living in: ''Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey, Iraq, Pakistan, Syria, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Russia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Armenia, Oman, China (Xinjiang), India, United Kingdom, Germany and United States''. |popplace= ''Iranian plateau and the Middle East, Anatolia, South Asia, Central Asia, the Caucasus'' and as immigrant communities in ''North America, and Western Europe''. |langs= Iranian Languages, a branch of the Indo-European language family. |rels= Predominantly Shi'a Islam and Sunni Islam. There are also some adherents of Orthodox Christianity, Nestorianism, Judaism, Bahá'í Faith, Zoroastrianism, Toshavim, Atheism, Agnosticism. }}

The Iranian peoples (sometimes also Iranic peoples) are an Indo-European ethnic-linguistic group, consisting of the speakers of Iranian languages, a major branch of the Indo-European language family, as such forming a branch of Indo-European-speaking peoples. Their historical areas of settlement were on the Iranian plateau mainly in Iran, certain areas of Central Asia such as Tajikistan, most of Afghanistan, parts of Iraq, Turkey, Pakistan and scattered parts of the Caucasus Mountains. Their current distribution is spread across the Iranian plateau, stretching from the Indus in the east to central Anatolia in the west, and from Central Asia and the Caucasus to the Persian Gulf - a region that is sometimes termed the Iranian cultural continent, or Greater Persia by scholars, representing the extent of the Iranian languages and influence of the Persian People, through the geopolitical reach of the Persian empire.

The Iranian group emerges from an earlier Indo-Iranian unity during the Late Bronze Age, and they enter the historical record during the Early Iron Age. The Persians formed the Achaemenid Empire by the 6th century BC, while the Scythians dominated the Eurasian steppe. With numerous artistic, scientific, architectural and philosophical achievements and numerous kingdoms and empires that bridged much of the civilized world in antiquity, the Iranian peoples were often in close contact with the Greeks, Romans, Indians, and Chinese. In addition, the various religions of the Iranian peoples, including Zoroastrianism, Mithraism and Manichaeism, are believed by some scholars to be important early philosophical influences on Christianity and Judaism. Early Iranian tribes are the ancestors of many modern Iranian peoples.

Name

The term ''Iranian'' is derived from the Old Iranian ethnical adjective ''Aryana'' which is itself a cognate of the Sanskrit word ''Arya''. The name ''Iran'' is from ''Aryānām''; lit: "[Land] of the Aryans". The old Proto-Indo-Iranian term ''Arya'', per Thieme meaning "hospitable", is believed to have been one of the self-referential terms used by the Aryans, at least in the areas populated by Aryans who migrated south from Central Asia. Another meaning for Aryan is noble. In the late part of the Avesta (Vendidad 1) one of their homelands was referred to as ''Airyanem Vaejah''. The homeland varied in its geographic range, the area around Herat (Pliny's view) and even the entire expanse of the Iranian plateau (Strabo's designation).

The academic usage of the term ''Iranian'' is distinct from the state of Iran and its various citizens (who are all Iranian by nationality and thus popularly referred to as ''Iranians'') in the same way that ''Germanic people'' is distinct from ''Germans''. Many citizens of Iran are not necessarily "Iranian people" by virtue of not being speakers of Iranian languages and may not have discernible ties to ancient Iranian tribes. Unlike the various terms connected with the Aryan arya- in Old Indian, the Old Iranian term has solely an ethnic meaning and there can be no doubt about the ethnic value of Old Iran. arya (Benveniste, 1969, I, pp. 369 f.; Szemerényi; Kellens).

The name Arya lives in the ethnic names like Alan, New Persian: Iran, Ossertian: Ir and Iron. The name Iran has been in usage since Sassanid times. Although Darius the Great called his language the Iranian language, modern scholars refer to it as Old Persian due to the fact that it is the ancestor of modern Persian language.

The Old Persian and Avestan evidence is confirmed by the Greek sources”. Herodotus in his Histories remarks about the Iranian Medes that: “These Medes were called anciently by all people Arians; “ (7.62). In Armenian sources, the Parthians, Medes and Persians are collectively referred to as Iranians. Eudemus of Rhodes apud Damascius (Dubitationes et solutiones in Platonis Parmenidem 125 bis) refers to “the Magi and all those of Iranian (áreion) lineage”; Diodorus Siculus (1.94.2) considers Zoroaster (Zathraustēs) as one of the Arianoi.

Strabo, in his "Geography", mentions the unity of Medes, Persians, Bactrians and Sogdians:

The Bactrian language (an Middle Iranian language) inscription of Kanishka the founder of the Kushan empire at Rabatak, which was discovered in 1993 in an unexcavated site in the Afghanistan province of Baghlan clearly refers to this Eastern Iranian language as Arya In the post-Islamic era one can still see a clear usage of the term Iran in the work of the 10th century historian Hamzeh Isfahani. In his famous book “the history of Prophets and Kings” writes: “Aryan which is also called Pars(Persia) is in the middle of these countries and these six countries surround it because the South East is in the hands China, the North of the Turks, the middle South is India, the middle North is Rome, and the South West and the North West is the Sudan and Berber lands”. All this evidence shows that the name arya “Iranian” was a collective definition, denoting peoples (Geiger, pp. 167 f.; Schmitt, 1978, p. 31) who were aware of belonging to the one ethnic stock, speaking a common language, and having a religious tradition that centered on the cult of Ahura Mazdā.

History and settlement

Roots

Having descended from the Proto-Indo-Iranians, it is widely believed that the Proto-Iranians separated from the Indo-Aryans, Dards (variously considered as Indo-Iranian or within the Indo-Aryan branch), and the Nuristanis in the early 2nd millennium BCE, in Central Asia. The area between northern Afghanistan, the Aral Sea and the Urals is hypothesized to have been the region where the Proto-Iranians first emerged, following the separation of the Indo-Iranians, in the area of the previous, Indo-Iranian Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex, a Bronze Age culture of Central Asia.

By the early 1st millennium, Ancient Iranian peoples such as Medes, Persians, Bactrians and Parthians populated the Iranian plateau, while others such as the Scythians, Cimmerians, Sarmatians and Alans populated the steppes north of the Black Sea. The Saka, Scythian, tribes spread as far west as the Balkans and as far east as Xinjiang. The Kushan Empire, with Bactrian roots/connections, once controlled much of Pakistan, some of Afghanistan and Tajikistan. The Kushan elite (who the Chinese called the Yuezhi) were either a Tocharian-speaking (another Indo-European branch) people or an Eastern Iranian language-speaking people.

The division into an "Eastern" and a "Western" group by the early 1st millennium is visible in Avestan vs. Old Persian, the two oldest known Iranian languages. The Old Avestan texts known as the Gathas are believed to have been composed by Zoroaster, the founder of Zoroastrianism, with the Yaz culture (ca. 1500–1100 BCE) as a candidate for the development of Eastern Iranian culture.

Old Persian appears to have been established in written form by 519 BCE, following the creation of the Old Persian script, inspired by the cuneiform script of the Assyrians.

Western Iranic peoples

During the 1st centuries of the first millennium BCE, the ancient Persians established themselves in the western portion of the Iranian plateau and appear to have interacted considerably with the Elamites and Babylonians, while the Medes also entered in contact with the Assyrians. Remnants of the Median language and Old Persian show their common Proto-Iranian roots, emphasized in Strabo and Herodotus' description of their languages as very similar to the languages spoken by the Bactrians and Soghdians in the east. Following the establishment of the Achaemenid Empire, the Persian language (referred to as "''Farsi''" in Persian) spread from Pars or Fars Province to various regions of the Empire, with the modern dialects of Iran, Afghanistan (also known as Dari) and Central-Asia (known as Tajiki) descending from Old Persian.

Old Persian is attested in the Behistun Inscription (ca. 519 BCE), recording a proclamation by Darius the Great. In southwestern Iran, the Achaemenid kings usually wrote their inscriptions in trilingual form (Elamite, Babylonian and Old Persian) while elsewhere other languages were used. The administrative languages were Elamite in the early period, and later Imperial Aramaic.

The early inhabitants of the Achaemenid Empire appear to have adopted the religion of Zoroastrianism. The Baloch who speak a west Iranian language relate an oral tradition regarding their migration from Aleppo, Syria around the year 1000 AD, whereas linguistic evidence links Balochi to Kurdish and Zazaki.

Eastern Iranic peoples

While the Iranian tribes of the south are better known through their texts and modern counterparts, the tribes which remained largely in the vast Eurasian expanse are known through the references made to them by the ancient Greeks, Persians, Indo-Aryans as well as by archaeological finds. Many ancient Sanskrit texts make references to tribes like Sakas, Paradas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Uttaramadras, Madras, Lohas, Parama Kambojas, Rishikas, Tukharas or Tusharas etc. and locate them in the (Uttarapatha) (north-west) division, in Central Asia, around Hindukush range in northern Pakistan. The Greek chronicler, Herodotus (5th century BCE) makes references to a nomadic people, the Scythians; he describes as having dwelt in what is today southern Russia.

It is believed that these Scythians were conquered by their eastern cousins, the Sarmatians, who are mentioned by Strabo as the dominant tribe which controlled the southern Russian steppe in the 1st millennium AD. These Sarmatians were also known to the Romans, who conquered the western tribes in the Balkans and sent Sarmatian conscripts, as part of Roman legions, as far west as Roman Britain.

The Sarmatians of the east became the Alans, who also ventured far and wide, with a branch ending up in Western Europe and North Africa, as they accompanied the Germanic Vandals during their migrations. The modern Ossetians are believed to be the sole direct descendants of the Alans, as other remnants of the Alans disappeared following Germanic, Hunnic and ultimately Slavic migrations and invasions. Another group of Alans allied with Goths to defeat the Romans and ultimately settled in what is now called Catalonia (Goth-Alania). Some of the Saka-Scythian tribes in Central Asia would later move further southeast and invade the Iranian plateau, large sections of present day Pakistan/Afghanistan and finally deep into the northwestern portion of the Indian subcontinent; i.e. present day Punjab (Persian for land of five rivers) (see Indo-Scythians). Another Iranian tribe related to the Saka-Scythians were the Parni in Central Asia, and who later become indistinguishable from the Parthians, speakers of a northwest-Iranian language. Many Iranian tribes, including the Khwarazmians, Massagetae and Sogdians, were assimilated and/or displaced in Central Asia by the migrations of Turkic tribes emanating out of Xinjiang and Siberia.

The most dominant surviving Eastern Iranian peoples are represented by the Pashtuns, whose origins are generally believed to be from the Suleiman mountains in the Balochistan province of Pakistan, from which they began to spread until they reached as far west as Herat, north to areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan; and as eastward towards the Indus as well as adjacent areas of the Panjab and Sindh provinces of Pakistan. The Pashto language shows affinities to the Avestan and Bactrian.

The modern Sarikoli in southern Xinjiang and the Ossetians of the Caucasus are remnants of the various Saka tribes. The modern Ossetians claim to be the descendants of the Alano-Sarmatians and their claims are supported by their Northeast Iranian language, while culturally the Ossetians resemble their Caucasian neighbors, the Kabardians and Circassians. Various extinct Iranian people existed in the eastern Caucasus, including the Azaris, while some Iranian people remain in the region, including the Talysh and the Tats (including the Judeo-Tats, who have relocated to Israel), found in Azerbaijan and as far north as the Russian republic of Dagestan. A remnant of the Sogdians is found in the Yaghnobi speaking population in parts of the Zeravshan valley in Tajikistan.

Later developments

Starting with the reign of Omar in 634 CE, Muslim Arabs began a conquest of the Iranian plateau. The Arabs conquered the Sassanid Empire of the Persians and seized much of the Byzantine Empire populated by the Kurds and others. Ultimately, the various Iranian people, including the Persians, Azaries, Kurds, Baluchis and Pashtuns, converted to Islam. The Iranian people would later split along sectarian lines as the Persians (and later the Hazara) adopted the Shi'a sect. As ancient tribes and identities changed, so did the Iranian people, many of whom assimilated foreign cultures and people.

Later, during the 2nd millennium CE, the Iranian people would play a prominent role during the age of Islamic expansion and empire. Saladin, a noted adversary of the Crusaders, was an ethnic Kurd, while various empires centered in Iran (including the Safavids) re-established a modern dialect of Persian as the official language spoken throughout much of what is today Iran and adjacent parts of Central Asia. Iranian influence spread to the Ottoman Empire, where Persian was often spoken at court, as well as in the Mughal Empire, a Mongol-Turkic (Uzbek) peoples, which began in Afghanistan and shifted to South Asia encompassing various regions which now make up parts of Pakistan. All of the major Iranian people reasserted their use of Iranian languages following the decline of Arab rule, but would not begin to form modern national identities until the 19th and early 20th centuries (just as Germans and Italians were beginning to formulate national identities of their own).

The following either partially descend from Iranian people or are sometimes regarded as possible descendants of ancient Iranian people:

Turkic-speakers:

Azeris: Although Azeris speak a Turkic language (modern Azerbaijani language), they are believed to be primarily descendants of ancient Iranians. and Caucasians. Thus, due to their historical ties with various ancient Iranians, as well as their cultural ties to Persians, the Azeris are often associated with the Iranian people (see Origin of Azerbaijani people and the Iranian theory regarding the origin of the Azerbaijanis for more details).

Uzbeks: The modern Uzbek people are believed to have both Iranian and Turkic ancestry. ''"Uzbek"'' and ''"Tajik"'' are modern designations given to the culturally homogeneous, sedentary population of Central Asia. The local ancestors of both groups - the Turkic-speaking Uzbeks and the Iranian-speaking Tajiks - were known as ''"Sarts"'' (''"sedentary merchants"'') prior to the Russian conquest of Central Asia, while ''"Uzbek"'' or ''"Turk"'' were the names given to the nomadic and semi-nomadic populations of the area. Still today, modern Uzbeks and Tajiks are known as ''"Sarts"'' to their Turkic neighbours, the Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz. The ancient Soghdians and Bactrians are among their ancestors. Culturally, the Uzbeks are closer to their sedentary Iranian-speaking neighbours rather than to their nomadic and semi-nomadic Turkic neighbours. Some Uzbek scholars, i.e. Ahmadov and Askarov, favour the ''Iranian origin'' theory.

*The native name of Yakuts is Sakha, very similar to the Sakkas, proposing Yakuts to be related of descendants of Scythians, specifically Sakkahs.

Slavic-speakers:

* A few linguists suggest that the names of the South Slavic people, the Serbs and Croats are of Iranian origin. Those who entertain such a connection propose that the Sarmatian ''Serboi'' and ''Horouthos'' tribes might have migrated from the Eurasian steppe lands to eastern Europe, and assimilated with the numerically superior Slavs, passing on their name. Iranian-speaking people did inhabit parts of the Balkans in late classical times, and would have been encountered by the Slavs. However, direct linguistic, historical or archaeological proof for such a theory is lacking. (See also: Theories on the origin of Serbs and Theories on the origin of Croats)

Some modern Bulgarian historians claim that the Bulgars were of Iranian origin and that they migrated to Europe from the region of today's northern Afghanistan - Hindukush mountains, from the Kingdom of Balhara. Their claims are based on medieval Armenian sources, the writings of ancient historians ("Ashharatsuyts" by Anania Shirakatsi; Agathias of Myrina, Theophylact Simocatta, Michael the Syrian) archaeological findings in modern Bulgaria, the similarities with Iranic languages (place names, people names, and Iranic words in modern Bulgarian), similarities with culture (e.g: some buildings in Pliska were built in a Zoroastrian fashion; similarities in traditional music, dancing and carpet making) and the very close similarity of the DNA of Pamirian/Iranic people with that of modern Bulgarians After their arrival on Balkans, the Bulgars subjugated and then formed an allience with the local Slavs and formed the Bulgarian nation.

Finno-Ugric speakers

*Many Volga Finns may be of part Iranian admixture due to Bulgar invasion of the Volga basin, if they (Bulgars) were Iranian people.

*Hungarians have long prided themselves as Scythians in the past, Scythians being an Iranian people, prior to the Finno-Ugric theory. It's possible they've undergone a language shift. In a Magyar folkore suggests Iranian admixture among Hungarian, when Hunor and Magor marry princesses who were Alans, another Iranian people. Jassic people of Hungary are of Ossetian origin. Szekely is pronounced "Sae-Kai" and are possibly of Iranian origin, as their name is similar to Sakka.

Demographics

There are an estimated 150 to 200 million native speakers of Iranian languages, the five major groups of Persians, Lurs, Kurds , Baloch, and Pashtuns accounting for about 90% of this number. Currently, most of these Iranian peoples live in Iran, the Caucasus (mainly Ossetia, other parts of Georgia, and Azerbaijan), Kurdish majority populated areas of Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Syria, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.

Due to recent migrations, there are also large communities of speakers of Iranian languages in Europe, the Americas, and Israel.

The following is a list of Iranian people with the respective groups's core areas of settlements and their estimated sizes (in millions):

! People	! region	! population
	Aymāq>Aimaqs	Hazara people>Hazara	:* Huwala	Tajik people>Tajik	:* Tats	Iran Persian speakers in- Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, Uzbekistan	60-70
Pashtuns	:* Durrani	:* Ghilzai	:* Yusufzai	Wazir (tribe)>Waziri	Afghanistan and Pakistan	48-50
	:* Soranis.	:* Kurmanjis.	Goran Kurds>Goranis (Orami)s.	:* Kalhurs	Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Syria, Armenia,Azerbaijan, Georgia,Turkmenistan, Israel and Lebanon	23-36
	Iran, Pakistan & Afghanistan	10
Gilaki people	Iran	5-10
	Iran	6
	Iran	0.5
[[Pamiri people	:* Sariqoli	Wakhi (ethnic group)>Wakhi	:* ''"Tajiks of China"''	:* Shughni	Tajikistan, China (Xinjiang),Afghanistan	0.9
	Azerbaijan, Iran	0.5
Ossetians	Jasz people>Jasz	Digor people>Digor	Iron people>Iron	South Ossetia and Georgia,Russia (North Ossetia), Hungary	0.7
	Turkey	3-5
Parsis	Pakistan and India	0.1
		0.025
Kumzari	Oman (Musandam)	0.021

Diversity

It is largely through linguistic similarities that the Iranian people have been linked, as many non-Iranian people have adopted Iranian languages and cultures. However, other common traits have been identified as well and a stream of common historical events have often linked the southern Iranian people, including Hellenistic conquests, the various empires based in Persia, Arab Caliphates and Turkic invasions.

Culture

Like other Indo-Europeans, the early Iranians practiced ritual sacrifice, had a social hierarchy consisting of warriors, clerics and farmers and poetic hymns and sagas to recount their deeds.

Following the Iranian split from the Indo-Iranians, the Iranians developed an increasingly distinct culture. Various common traits can be discerned among the Iranian people. For example, the social event Norouz is an Iranian festival that is practiced by nearly all of the Iranian people as well as others in the region. Its origins are traced to Zoroastrianism and pre-historic times.

Some Iranian cultures exhibit traits that are unique unto themselves. The Pashtuns adhere to a code of honor and culture known as Pashtunwali, which has a similar counterpart among the Baloch, called Mayar, that is more hierarchical.

Religion

The early Iranian people worshipped various deities found throughout other cultures where Indo-European immigrants established themselves. The earliest major religion of the Iranian people was Zoroastrianism, which spread to nearly all of the Iranian people living in the Iranian plateau. Other religions that had their origins in the Iranian world were Mithraism, Manichaeism, and Mazdakism, among others. Modern speakers of Iranian languages mainly follow Islam. Some follow Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and the Bahá'í Faith, with an unknown number showing no religious affiliation. Overall the numbers of Sunni and Shia among the Iranian people are equally distributed. Most Kurds, Tajiks, Pashtuns, and Baluch are Sunni Muslims, while the remainder are mainly Twelver Shi'a, comprising mostly Persians in Iran, and Hazaras in Afghanistan. Zazas in Turkey are largely Alevi, while the Pamiri peoples in Tajikistan and China are nearly all Ismaili. The Christian community is mainly represented by the Armenian Apostolic Church, followed by the Russian Orthodox and Georgian Orthodox Ossetians followed by Nestorians. Judaism is followed mainly by Persian Jews, Kurdish Jews, Bukharian Jews (of Central Asia) and the Mountain Jews (of the Caucasus), most of whom are now found in Israel. The historical religion of the Persian Empire was Zoroastrianism and it still has a few thousand followers, mostly in Yazd and Kerman. They are known as the Parsis in the Indian subcontinent, where many of them fled in historic times following the Arab conquest of Persia, or Zoroastrians in Iran. Another ancient religion is the Yazidi faith, followed by some Kurds in northern Iraq, as well as the majority of the Kurds in Armenia.

Elements of pre-Islamic Zoroastrian and shamanistic beliefs persist among some Islamized groups today, such as the Tajiks, Pashtuns and Pamiri peoples.

Cultural assimilation

In matters relating to culture, the various Turkic-speaking minorities of Iran (notably the Azerbaijani people) and Afghanistan (Uzbeks and Turkmen) are often conversant in Iranian languages, in addition to their own Turkic languages and also have Iranian culture to the extent that the term ''Turko-Iranian'' can be applied. The usage applies to various circumstances that involve historic interaction, intermarriage, cultural assimilation, bilingualism and cultural overlap or commonalities.

Notable among this synthesis of Turko-Iranian culture are the Azeris, whose culture, religion and significant periods of history are linked to the Persians. Certain theories and genetic tests suggest that the Azeris are descendants of ancient Iranian peoples who lost their Iranian language (see Ancient Azari language) following the Turkic invasions of Azerbaijan in the 11th century CE. In fact, throughout much of the expanse of Central Asia and the Middle East, Iranian and Turkic culture has merged in many cases to form various hybrid populations and cultures, as evident from various ruling dynasties such as the Ghaznavids, Seljuqs and Mughals.

Iranian cultural influences have also been significant in Central Asia, where Turkic invaders are believed to have largely mixed with native Iranian people of which only the Tajik remain, in terms of language usage. The areas of the former Soviet Union adjacent to Iran (such as Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan) have gone through the prism of decades of Russian and Soviet rule that has reshaped the Turko-Iranian cultures there to some degree.

Genetics

Two Y-DNA Haplogroups are supposed to be connected with Iranic people Haplogroup J2 and R1a1

J2a:

Haplogroup J2 especially the subcadle J2a is frequently found among almost all groups of Iranic people. In comparison with the Haplogroup R1a1, J2 is not only restricted to geographically eastern and western Iranic populations, but also found among north-western and south-western Iranic populations such as the Bakhtiaris and Mazanderani, as well as geographically north-western Iranic Ossetians. Despite its supposed origin in the fertile crescent, J2a is also found among Iranic populations in the east such as the Yagnobi which are of Soghdian origin as well as the Parsis of India. Beside the relatively high percentage among the Yagnobis in Central Asia, other Iranic populations tend to have a higher frequency of J2a when compared to neighboring Turkic populations. The relatively strong presence of J2a among Ossetians as well as Yagnobis proves distant from the supposed Mesopotamian origin region of J2, are carriers of this Haplogroup.

In the Indo-Iranian context, the occurrence of J2a in South Asia is limited to caste populations, with the highest frequencies found among northern areas of South Asia. Compared with R1a1, J2a shows a more conservative distribution, stronger limited to Indo-Iranian origin groups.

R1a1:

Haplogroup M17, also known as R1a1, has been supposed to be a diagnostic Indo-Iranian marker. The highest R1a1 frequencies are detected in the Central Asian populations of Ishkashemi Tajiks (68%) and Pamiri Tajiks (64%) , both groups being remnants of the original Eastern Iranian population of the region. Apart from these two groups, high frequencies of R1a1 are also found in Pashtuns (44.8%) and eastern parts of the Iranian Highlands up to frequencies of 35%, similar to Northern India, while Western Iran based on Iranians sampled (52 Samples from the western part of the country) appears to have had little genetic influence from the supposed R1a1-carrying Indo-Iranians about 10%,to attributed to language replacement through the "elite-dominance" model in a similar manner which occurred in Europe and India. In this regard, it is likely that the Kavir and Lut deserts in the center of Iran have acted as significant barriers to gene flow.

Genetic studies conducted by Cavalli-Sforza have revealed that Iranians have weak correlation with Near Eastern groups, and are closer to surrounding Indo-Europeans speaking populations. This study is partially supported by another one, based on Y-Chromosome haplogroups.

The findings of this study reveal many common genetic markers found among the Iranian people from the Tigris river of Iraq to the Indus of Pakistan. This correlates with the Iranian languages spoken from the Caucasus to Kurdish areas in the Zagros region and eastwards to western Pakistan and Tajikistan and parts of Uzbekistan in Central Asia. The extensive gene flow is perhaps an indication of the spread of Iranian-speaking people, whose languages are now spoken mainly on the Iranian plateau and adjacent regions. These results relate the relationships of Iranian people with each other, while other comparative testing reveals some varied origins for Iranian people such as the Kurds, who show genetic ties to the Caucasus at considerably higher levels than any other Iranian people except the Ossetians, as well as links to Europe and Semitic populations that live in close proximity such as the Arab and Jews.

Another recent study of the genetic landscape of Iran was completed by a team of Cambridge geneticists led by Dr. Maziar Ashrafian Bonab (an Iranian Azarbaijani). Bonab remarked that his group had done extensive DNA testing on different language groups, including Indo-European and non Indo-European speakers, in Iran. The study found that the Azerbaijanis of Iran do not have a similar FSt and other genetic markers found in Anatolian and European Turks. However, the genetic Fst and other genetic traits like MRca and mtDNA of Iranian Azeris were identical to Persians in Iran. Azaris of Iran also show very close genetic ties to Kurds.

See also

Airyanem Vaejah

Ajam (Bahrain)

Ancient Iranian peoples

Bulgars

Caspian people

Greater Iran

Indo-Iranians

Iranian Kuwaitis

Turko-Iranian

Literature and further reading

Banuazizi, Ali and Weiner, Myron (eds.). ''The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East)'', Syracuse University Press (August, 1988). ISBN 0-8156-2448-4.

Canfield, Robert (ed.). ''Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2002). ISBN 0-521-52291-9

Curzon, R. ''The Iranian People of the Caucasus''. ISBN 0-7007-0649-6.

Derakhshani, Jahanshah. ''Die Arier in den nahöstlichen Quellen des 3. und 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr.'', 2nd edition (1999). ISBN 964-90368-6-5.

Frye, Richard, ''Greater Iran'', Mazda Publishers (2005). ISBN 1-56859-177-2.

Frye, Richard. ''Persia'', Schocken Books, Zurich (1963). ASIN B0006BYXHY.

Kennedy, Hugh. ''The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates'', Longman, New York, NY (2004). ISBN 0-582-40525-4

Khoury, Philip S. & Kostiner, Joseph. ''Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East'', University of California Press (1991). ISBN 0-520-07080-1.

Littleton, C. & Malcor, L. ''From Scythia to Camelot'', Garland Publishing, New York, NY, (2000). ISBN 0-8153-3566-0.

Mallory, J.P. ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans'', Thames and Hudson, London (1991). ISBN 0-500-27616-1.

McDowall, David. ''A Modern History of the Kurds'', I.B. Tauris, 3rd Rev edition (2004). ISBN 1-85043-416-6.

Nassim, J. ''Afghanistan: A Nation of Minorities'', Minority Rights Group, London (1992). ISBN 0-946690-76-6.

Riasanovsky, Nicholas. ''A History of Russia'', Oxford University Press, Oxford (2004). ISBN 0-19-515394-4.

Sims-Williams, Nicholas. ''Indo-Iranian Languages and People'', British Academy (2003). ISBN 0-19-726285-6.

Iran Nama, (Iran Travelogue in Urdu) by Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Tibbi Academy, Aligarh, India (1998).

Saga of the Aryans, Historical novel on ancient Iranian migrations by Porus Homi Havewala, Published Mumbai, India (2005, 2010).

References

External links

Iranian

Encyclopedia Britannica: Iranian languages

People of Iran

The Changing Face of Iran a photo essay by ''Newsweek Magazine''

Maps and demographic information on all the people groups of Iran found at www.EveryTongue.com/iran

Category:Ancient peoples Category:Ethnic groups in the Middle East Category:Indo-European peoples Iranian people

ar:شعوب إيرانية az:İrandilli xalqlar bo:ཏ་ཟིག་གི་མི། bs:Iranski narodi bg:Ирански народи ca:Irànics da:Iranske folk de:Iranische Völker es:Pueblos iranios et:Iraani rahvad fa:اقوام ایرانی‌تبار fr:Peuples iraniens hr:Iranski narodi id:Bangsa Iran os:Ирайнаг адæмтæ it:Iranici ka:ირანელები lv:Irāņu tautas lt:Iraniečiai mg:Iranianina mr:इराणी mzn:ایرانی تبارون ms:Bangsa Iran nl:Iraanse volkeren pl:Ludy irańskie pt:Povos iranianos ru:Иранские народы sr:Ирански народи sh:Iranski narodi sv:Iranier tr:İranî halklar uk:Іранські народи zh:伊朗人

Jordan Sekulow (born July 14, 1982 in Atlanta, Georgia) is an American lawyer, radio talkshow host, ''Washington Post'' blogger and political consultant. In addition, he is the current Director of Policy and International Operations at the American Center for Law & Justice (ACLJ), an international public interest law firm and educational organization.

Education

Sekulow graduated from George Washington University, receiving a bachelor's degree in political science. While there, he was a founding father of the Theta Zeta chapter of the Pi Kappa Phi fraternity. He graduated with a J.D. from Regent University in 2009. Jordan also co-founded the Regent Journal of Law and Public Policy in 2008. Jordan has an LLM with a focus on International Human Rights Law from Georgetown University Law Center.

Radio and Television

Sekulow is the host of ''The Jordan Sekulow Show'', a daily talk show featuring prominent political guests such as Mitt Romney, Newt Gingrich, Michele Bachmann and Herman Cain. It airs on WAVA AM 780 and Sirius and XM Satellite networks. Along with his father, Jay Sekulow, Jordan co-hosts ''Jay Sekulow Live!'', a syndicated daily radio program that airs on nearly 850 AM and FM stations nationwide, as well as on XM and Sirius Satellite networks. He is the co-host of ''ACLJ This Week'', a weekly television news program broadcast on TBN and Daystar.

Blogging

On December 15, 2010, ''The Washington Post's On Faith'' blog introduced Jordan Sekulow's featured blog, ''Religious Right Now,'' exploring "what social conservatives want."

Political Consultancy

During President George W. Bush's 2004 Campaign, Sekulow served as the National Youth Coalition Director for the Bush-Cheney Campaign. In the 2008 Presidential Republican Primaries, Sekulow worked for Mitt Romney, serving as a Vice-Chair of his National Faith And Values Steering Committee.

References

External links

www.jordansekulow.com

www.aclj.org

Category:1982 births Category:Living people Category:People from Atlanta, Georgia Category:American lawyers Category:American bloggers Category:American radio personalities

name	Rizwan Khan
birth date
birth place	Aden, South Yemen
education	University of Wales Medical Physiology (B.Sc.) University of Portsmouth Radio Journalism (B.A.)
occupation	Reporter and Anchor at Al Jazeera
years active
website	}}

Rizwan "Riz" Khan (born April 1962) is a British television news reporter and interviewer who until April 2011 hosted his own eponymous television show on Al Jazeera English. He first rose to prominence while working for the BBC and CNN.

Life and career

Khan was born in Aden, South Yemen, to a Punjabi father and Gujarati mother. His father's roots hail from Pakistan-administered Kashmir while his mother's roots go back to Kutch, Gujarat. He considers himself as a British Pakistani. Khan moved with his family to London, at the age of four. He attended both Springwell Junior and Hounslow Manor Comprehensive Schools and joined the Air Training Corps, and graduated with a Bachelor of Science with Honours in Medical Physiology from the University of Wales, and then completed a postgraduate course in Radio Journalism at the University of Portsmouth.

In 1987 he was selected for the BBC News Trainee scheme - a two-year BBC training system, usually taking only 6 people per course. Khan progressed to jobs as a BBC reporter, producer, and writer, working in both television and radio, and would later become one of the founding News Presenters on BBC World Service Television News. He hosted the news bulletin that launched BBC World Service Television News in 1991. In 1993, he moved to CNN International, where he became a senior anchor for the network's global news shows. Events he covered included the 1996 and 1999 coverage of elections in India; the 1997 historic election in Britain; and in April 1998 the unprecedented live coverage from the Muslim pilgrimage, the Hajj.

In 1996 he launched his interactive interview show ''CNN: Q&A; with Riz Khan'', and he has conducted interviews with guests including former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, former US Presidents Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton, the Dalai Lama and Nelson Mandela, and genomic scientist J. Craig Venter. Khan also secured the world exclusive with Pakistan's General Pervez Musharraf following his coup in October 1999. Khan also hosted ''Q&A-Asia; with Riz Khan''. These interactive shows put world newsmakers and celebrities up for viewer questions live by phone, e-mail, video-mail and fax, along with questions and comments taken from the real-time chatroom that opens half-an-hour before each show.

Khan hosted his show, ''Riz Khan'', on Al Jazeera English, interviewing analysts and policy makers and allows viewers to interact with them via phone, email, SMS messages or fax. The show came to an end in April 2011.

Khan speaks Urdu and Hindi and also understands other South Asian languages such as Punjabi and Kutchi. He has studied French, and can understand some other European languages, including Swedish.

In 2005 he authored his first book, ''Al-Waleed: Businessman Billionaire Prince'', published by Harper Collins.

In 2011 he authored a preface for the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) annual report "Attacks on the Press 2010", which examined working conditions for journalists in more than 100 countries.

References

"Why I'm Joining Al Jazeera", op-ed by Riz Khan, ''The Wall Street Journal'', 13 June 2005, p. A1

"Q&A; CNN Anchor: Riz Khan". ''India Today''. February 19, 2001.

External links

Riz Khan's official website

Profile at Al Jazeera English

MySpace Profile

Interview with Baron Dave Romm of KFAI-FM at the Republican National Convention Sept. 2, 2008 and picture

Category:1962 births Category:Al Jazeera people Category:Alumni of Cardiff University Category:Alumni of the University of Portsmouth Category:British Muslims Category:British people of Indian descent Category:English people of Pakistani descent Category:British journalists Category:British television presenters Category:Living people Category:Punjabi people Category:Gujarati people Category:People from Aden

ar:ريز خان he:ריז ח'אן sw:Riz Khan no:Riz Khan