from 1564 to 1576. The Emperors used the double-headed eagle as a symbol of their authority]]
The Holy Roman Emperor (, or "Roman-German Emperor") is a term used by historians to denote a medieval ruler who, as German King, had also received the title of "Emperor of the Romans" from the Pope. After the 16th century, this elected monarch governed the Holy Roman Empire (later called Holy Roman Empire of the German nation), a Central European union of territories of the Medieval and Early Modern period.
"Holy"
Although the term "sacrum" (i.e. "holy") in connection with the mediaeval Roman Empire did not appear until 1157 under
Frederick I Barbarossa,
Otto I is considered the first Holy Roman Emperor from the
Kingdom of Germany, though
Charlemagne of the
Carolingian Dynasty was the first to receive papal
coronation as Emperor of the Romans.
Charles V was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by the Pope. The final Holy Roman Emperor-elect,
Francis II, abdicated in 1806 during the
Napoleonic Wars that saw the Empire's final dissolution.
The standard designation of the Holy Roman Emperor was "August Emperor of the Romans" (Romanorum Imperator Augustus). When Charlemagne was crowned in 800, his was styled as "most serene Augustus, crowned by God, great and pacific emperor, governing the Roman Empire," thus constituting the elements of "Holy" and "Roman" in the imperial title. The word Holy had never been used as part of that title in official documents.
The word Roman was a reflection of the translatio imperii (transfer of rule) principle that regarded the (Germanic) Holy Roman Emperors as the inheritors of the title of Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, a title left unclaimed in the West after the death of Julius Nepos in 480.
Establishment of the Holy Roman Empire
After
Charlemagne was crowned Roman Emperor by the
Pope, his successors maintained the title until the death of
Berengar I of Italy in 924. No pope appointed an emperor again until
Otto the Great (912-973). Otto is considered the first Holy Roman Emperor. Under Otto and his successors, much of the former
Carolingian kingdom of
Eastern Francia became the Holy Roman Empire. The various German princes elected one of their peers as
King of the Germans, after which he would be crowned as emperor by the
Pope. After Charles V's coronation, all succeeding emperors were legally
emperors-elect due to the lack of papal coronation, but in all practical purposes they were simply called
emperors.
Conflict with the Papacy
The title of
Emperor (
Imperator) carried with it an important role as protector of the
Catholic Church. As the papacy's power grew during the Middle Ages, Popes and emperors came into conflict over church administration. The most well-known and bitter conflict was that known as the
Investiture Controversy fought during the 11th century between
Henry IV and
Pope Gregory VII.
Succession
Successions to the kingship were controlled by a variety of complicated factors. Elections meant the kingship of
Germany was only partially hereditary, unlike the kingship of
France, although sovereignty frequently remained in a dynasty until there were no more male successors. Some scholars suggest that the task of the elections was really to solve conflicts only when the dynastic rule was unclear, yet, the process meant that the prime candidate had to make concessions, by which the voters were kept on side, which were known as
Wahlkapitulationen (election capitulations).
The Electoral council was set at seven princes (three archbishops and four secular princes) by the Golden Bull of 1356. It remained so until 1648, when the settlement of the Thirty Years' War required the addition of a new elector to maintain the precarious balance between Protestant and Catholic factions in the Empire. Another elector was added in 1690, and the whole college was reshuffled in 1803, a mere three years before the dissolution of the Empire.
After 1438, the Kings remained in the house of Habsburg and Habsburg-Lorraine, with the brief exception of one Wittelsbach, Charles VII. Maximilian I (Emperor 1508-1519) and his successors no longer travelled to Rome to be crowned as Emperor by the Pope. Therefore, they could not technically claim the title Emperor of the Romans, but were mere "Emperors-elect of the Romans", as Maximilian named himself in 1508 with papal approval. This title was in fact used (Erwählter Römischer Kaiser), but it was somewhat forgotten that the word "erwählt" (elect) was a restriction. Of all his successors, only Charles V, the immediate one, received a papal coronation. Before that date in 1530, he was called Emperor-elect too.
List of emperors
This list includes all emperors, whether or not they styled themselves
Holy Roman Emperor. There are some gaps in the tally. For example,
Henry the Fowler was King of Germany but not Emperor;
Emperor Henry II was numbered as his successor as German King. The Guideschi follow the numeration for the
Duchy of Spoleto.
Emperors before Otto the Great
Traditional historiography claimed a continuity between the
Carolingian Empire and the Holy Roman Empire. This is rejected by some modern historians, who date the foundation of the Holy Roman Empire to 962. The rulers who were crowned as Emperors in the west before 962 were as follows:
Carolingian dynasty
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Coin
|-
|
| align="center"|
Charles I (Charlemagne)
| align="center"| 2 April 742-28 January 814
| align="center"| 25 December 800
| align="center"| 28 January 814
| align="center"| -
|
|-
|
| align="center"|
Louis I
| align="center"| 778-20 June 840
| align="center"| 5 October 816
| align="center"| 20 June 840
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Charles I
|
|-
|
| align="center"|
Lothair I
| align="center"| 795-29 September 855
| align="center"| 5 April 823
| align="center"| 29 September 855
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Louis I
|
|-
|
| align="center"|
Louis II
| align="center"| 825-12 August 875
| align="center"|
1st Easter 850
2nd 18 May 872
| align="center"| 12 August 875
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Lothair I
|
|-
|
| align="center"|
Charles II
| align="center"| 13 June 823-6 October 877
| align="center"| 29 December 875
| align="center"| 6 October 877
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Louis I
|
|-
|
| align="center"|
Charles III
| align="center"| 13 June 839-13 January 888
| align="center"| 12 February 881
| align="center"| 13 January 888
| align="center"| grandson of
Emperor Louis I
|
|-
|}
Guideschi dynasty
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Coin
|-
|
| align="center"|
Guy
| align="center"| 855-12 December 894
| align="center"| May 891
| align="center"| 12 December 894
| align="center"| great-great grandson of
Emperor Charles I
| align="center"| -
|-
|
| align="center"|
Lambert
| align="center"| 880-15 October 898
| align="center"| 30 April 892
| align="center"| 15 October 898
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Guy
| align="center"| -
|-
|}
Carolingian dynasty
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Coin
|-
|
| align="center"|
Arnulph
| align="center"| 850-8 December 899
| align="center"| 22 February 896
| align="center"| 8 December 899
| align="center"| nephew of
Charles IIIandgreat-grandson of
Emperor Louis I
| align="center"| -
|-
|}
Bosonid dynasty
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Coin
|-
|
| align="center"|
Louis III
| align="center"| 880-28 June 928
| align="center"| 22 February 901
| align="center"| 21 July 905
| align="center"| grandson of
Emperor Louis II
| align="center"| -
|-
|}
Unruoching dynasty
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Coin
|-
|
| align="center"|
Berengar
| align="center"| 845-7 April 924
| align="center"| December 915
| align="center"| 7 April 924
| align="center"| grandson of
Emperor Louis I
| align="center"| -
|-
|}
There was no emperor in the west between 924 and 962.
Holy Roman Emperors
Ottonian (Saxon) dynasty
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=2% | #
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Election
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Seal
|-
| align="center"| 1
|
| align="center"|
Otto I
| align="center"| 23 November 912-7 May 973
| align="center"| -
| align="center"| 2 February 962
| align="center"| 7 May 973
| align="center"| perhaps great-great-great grandson of
Emperor Louis I
|
|-
| align="center"| 2
|
| align="center"|
Otto II
| align="center"| 955-7 December 983
| align="center"| 961
| align="center"| 25 December 967
| align="center"| 7 December 983
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Otto I
|
|-
| align="center"| 3
|
| align="center"|
Otto III
| align="center"| 980-23 January 1002
| align="center"| June 983
| align="center"| 21 May 996
| align="center"| 23 January 1002
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Otto II
|
|-
| align="center"| 4
|
| align="center"|
Henry II
| align="center"| 6 May 973-13 July 1024
| align="center"| 7 June 1002
| align="center"| 14 February 1014
| align="center"| 13 July 1024
| align="center"| second-cousin of
Emperor Otto IIIandgreat-great-great grandson of
Emperor Louis I
|
|-
|}
Salian (Frankish) dynasty
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=2% | #
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Election
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Seal
|-
| align="center"| 5
|
| align="center"|
Conrad II
| align="center"| 990-4 June 1039
| align="center"| 1024
| align="center"| 26 March 1027
| align="center"| 4 June 1039
| align="center"| great-great-grandson of
Emperor Otto I
|
|-
| align="center"| 6
|
| align="center"|
Henry III
| align="center"| 29 October 1017-5 October 1056
| align="center"| 1028
| align="center"| 25 December 1046
| align="center"| 5 October 1056
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Conrad II
|
|-
| align="center"| 7
|
| align="center"|
Henry IV
| align="center"| 11 November 1050-7 August 1106
| align="center"| 1053
| align="center"| 31 March 1084
| align="center"| December 1105
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Henry III
|
|-
| align="center"| 8
|
| align="center"|
Henry V
| align="center"| 8 November 1086-23 May 1125
| align="center"| 6 January 1099
| align="center"| 13 April 1111
| align="center"| 23 May 1125
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Henry IV
|
|-
|}
Supplinburger dynasty
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=2% | #
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Election
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Seal
|-
| align="center"| 9
|
| align="center"|
Lothair III
| align="center"| 9 June 1075-4 December 1137
| align="center"| 1125
| align="center"| 4 June 1133
| align="center"| 4 December 1137
| align="center"| perhaps 9th generation descendant of
Emperor Otto Ior11th generation descendant of
Emperor Charles II
|
|}
Staufen (or Hohenstaufen) dynasty
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=2% | #
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Election
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Arms
|-
| align="center"| 10
|
| align="center"|
Frederick I
| align="center"| 1122-10 June 1190
| align="center"| 4 March 1152
| align="center"| 18 June 1155
| align="center"| 10 June 1190
| align="center"| great-grandson of
Emperor Henry IV
|
|-
| align="center"| 11
|
| align="center"|
Henry VI
| align="center"| November 1165-28 September 1197
| align="center"| ?April 1169
| align="center"| 14 April 1191
| align="center"| 28 September 1197
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Frederick I
|
|-
|}
Welf dynasty
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=2% | #
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Election
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Arms
|-
| align="center"| 12
|
| align="center"|
Otto IV
| align="center"| 1175 or 1176-19 May 1218
| align="center"| 9 June 1198
| align="center"| 4 October 1209
| align="center"| 1215
| align="center"| great-grandson of
Emperor Lothair III
|
|-
|}
Staufen (or Hohenstaufen) dynasty
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=2% | #
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Election
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Arms
|-
| align="center"| 13
|
| align="center"|
Frederick II
| align="center"| 26 December 1194-13 December 1250
| align="center"| 11961215
re-election
| align="center"| 22 November 1220
| align="center"| 13 December 1250
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Henry VI
|
|-
|}
House of Luxembourg
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=2% | #
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Election
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Arms
|-
| align="center"| 14
|
| align="center"|
Henry VII
| align="center"| 1275/1279-24 August 1313
| align="center"| 1308
| align="center"| 29 June 1312
| align="center"| 24 August 1313
| align="center"| 13th generation descendant of
Emperor Louis III
|
|-
|}
House of Wittelsbach
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=2% | #
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Election
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Arms
|-
| align="center"| 15
|
| align="center"|
Louis IV
| align="center"| 1 April 1282-11 October 1347
| align="center"| October 1314
| align="center"| 17 January 1328
| align="center"| 11 October 1347
| align="center"| 6th generation descendant of
Emperor Lothair III and 7th generation descendant of
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
|
|-
|}
House of Luxembourg
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=2% | #
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Election
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Arms
|-
| align="center"| 16
|
| align="center"|
Charles IV
| align="center"| 14 May 1316-29 November 1378
| align="center"| 11 July 1346/17 June 1349
re-election
| align="center"| 5 April 1355
| align="center"| 29 November 1378
| align="center"| grandson of
Emperor Henry VII
|
|-
| align="center"| 17
|
| align="center"|
Sigismund
| align="center"| 14 February 1368-9 December 1437
| align="center"| 10 September 1410/21 July 1411
re-election
| align="center"| 31 May 1433
| align="center"| 9 December 1437
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Charles IV
|
|-
|}
House of Habsburg
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=2% | #
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Election
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from an Emperor
! width=8% | Arms
|-
| align="center"| 18
|
| align="center"|
Frederick III
| align="center"| 21 September 1415-19 August 1493
| align="center"| 1440
| align="center"| 19 March 1452
| align="center"| 19 August 1493
| align="center"| 10th generation descendant of
Emperor Lothair III
|
|-
| align="center"| 19
|
| align="center"|
Maximilian I
| align="center"| 22 March 1459-12 January 1519
| align="center"| 16 February 1486
| align="center"| -
| align="center"| 18 July 1552-20 January 1612
| align="center"| 1575
| align="center"| 30 June 1575
| align="center"| 20 January 1612
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Maximilian II
|
|-
| align="center"| 24
|
| align="center"|
Matthias
| align="center"| 24 February 1557-20 March 1619
| align="center"| 1612
| align="center"| 23 January 1612
| align="center"| 20 March 1619
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Maximilian II
|
|-
| align="center"| 25
|
| align="center"|
Ferdinand II
| align="center"| 9 July 1578-15 February 1637
| align="center"| 1618
| align="center"| 10 March 1619
| align="center"| 15 February 1637
| align="center"| grandson of
Emperor Ferdinand I
|
|-
| align="center"| 26
|
| align="center"|
Ferdinand III
| align="center"| 13 July 1608-2 April 1657
| align="center"| 1636
| align="center"| 18 November 1637
| align="center"| 2 April 1657
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Ferdinand II
|
|-
| align="center"| 27
|
| align="center"|
Leopold I
| align="center"| 9 June 1640-5 May 1705
| align="center"| July 1658
| align="center"| 6 March 1657
| align="center"| 5 May 1705
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Ferdinand III
|
|-
| align="center"| 28
|
| align="center"|
Joseph I
| align="center"| 26 July 1678-17 April 1711
| align="center"| 6 January 1690
| align="center"| 1 May 1705
| align="center"| 17 April 1711
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Leopold I
|
|-
| align="center"| 29
|
| align="center"|
Charles VI
| align="center"| 1 October 1685-20 October 1740
| align="center"| 22 December 1711
| align="center"| 12 October 1711
| align="center"| 20 October 1740
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Leopold I
|
|-
|}
House of Wittelsbach
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=2% | #
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Election
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from Emperor
! width=8% | Arms
|-
| align="center"| 30
|
| align="center"|
Charles VII
| align="center"| 6 August 1697-20 January 1745
| align="center"| 24 January 1742
| align="center"| 12 February 1742
| align="center"| 20 January 1745
| align="center"| great-great grandson of
Emperor Ferdinand II and 12th generation descendant of
Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor
|
|-
|}
House of Habsburg-Lorraine
{| width=90% class="wikitable"
! width=2% | #
! width=8% | Image
! width=15% | Name
! width=8% | Life
! width=8% | Election
! width=8% | Coronation
! width=8% | Ceased to be Emperor
! width=8% | Descent from an Emperor
! width=8% | Arms
|-
| align="center"| 31
|
| align="center"|
Francis I
| align="center"| 8 December 1708-18 August 1765
| align="center"| 13 September 1745
| align="center"| -
| align="center"| 18 August 1765
| align="center"| great grandson of
Emperor Ferdinand III
|
|-
| align="center"| 32
|
| align="center"|
Joseph II
| align="center"| 13 March 1741-20 February 1790
| align="center"| after 18 August 1765
| align="center"| 19 August 1765
| align="center"| 20 February 1790
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Francis I
|
|-
| align="center"| 33
|
| align="center"|
Leopold II
| align="center"| 5 May 1747-1 March 1792
| align="center"| after 20 February 1790
| align="center"| -
| align="center"| 1 March 1792
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Francis I
|
|-
| align="center"| 34
|
| align="center"|
Francis II
| align="center"| 12 February 1768-2 March 1835
| align="center"| after 1 March 1792
| align="center"| 4 March 1792
| align="center"| 6 August 1806
| align="center"| son of
Emperor Leopold II
|
|-
|}
Coronation
The Emperor was crowned in a special ceremony, traditionally performed by the
Pope in
Rome, using the
Imperial Regalia. Without that coronation, no king, despite exercising all powers, could call himself Emperor. In 1508, Pope
Julius II allowed
Maximilian I to use the title of Emperor without coronation in Rome, though the title was qualified as
Electus Romanorum Imperator ("elected Emperor of the Romans"). Maximilian's successors adopted the same titulature, usually when they became the sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. Maximilian's first successor
Charles V was the last to be crowned Emperor.
{|class="wikitable"
! Emperor
! Coronation date
! Officiant
! Location
|-
| Charles I
| 25 December 800
| Pope Leo III
| Rome
|-
| Louis I
| Jul/Aug 816
| Pope Stephen V
| Reims
|-
| Lothair I
| 5 April 823
| Pope Paschal I
| Rome
|-
| Louis II
| April 850
| Pope Leo IV
| Rome
|-
| Charles II
| 29 December 875
| rowspan="2"|Pope John VIII
| Rome
|-
| Charles III
| 12 February 881
|
|-
| Guy III of Spoleto
| May 891
| Pope Stephen V
|
|-
| Lambert II of Spoleto
| 30 April 892
| rowspan="2"|Pope Formosus
| Ravenna
|-
| Arnulf of Carinthia
| 22 February 896
| Rome
|-
| Louis III
| 15 or 22 February 901
| Pope Benedict IV
| Rome
|-
| Berengar
| December 915
| Pope John X
| Rome
|-
| Otto I
| 2 February, 962
| Pope John XII
|
|-
| Otto II
| 25 December, 967
| Pope John XIII
|
|-
| Otto III
| 21 May, 996
| Pope Gregory V
|
|-
| Henry II
| 14 February 1014
| Pope Benedict VIII
|
|-
| Conrad II
| 26 March 1027
| Pope John XIX
|
|-
| Henry III
| 25 December 1046
| Pope Clement II
|
|-
| Henry IV
| 31 March 1084
| Antipope Clement III
|
|-
| Henry V
| 13 April 1111
| Pope Paschal II
|
|-
| Henry V
| 23 March 1117
| Antipope Gregory VIII
|
|-
| Lothair III
| 4 June 1133
| Pope Innocent II
| Basilica of St. John Lateran
|-
| Frederick I
| 18 June 1155
| Pope Adrian IV
|
|-
| Henry VI
| 14 April 1191
| Pope Celestine III
|
|-
| Otto IV
| 4 October 1209
| Pope Innocent III
|
|-
| Frederick II
| 22 November 1220
| Pope Honorius III
|
|-
| Henry VII
| 29 June 1312
| Cardinals
|
|-
| Louis IV
| 17 January 1328
| Sciarra Colonna
|
|-
| Charles IV
| 5 April 1355
| Cardinal
|
|-
| Sigismund
| 31 May 1433
| Pope Eugenius IV
|
|-
| Frederick III
| 19 March 1452
| Pope Nicholas V
|
|-
| Charles V
| February 1530
| Pope Clement VII
| Bologna, Italy
|}
See also
Concordat of Worms
Emperor for other uses of the title "Emperor" in western Europe.
First Council of the Lateran
Holy Roman Emperors family tree
Holy Roman Empress
King of the Romans
List of German monarchs
Holy Roman Empire
References
*
Category:Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman
