Post	Caliph
Body	the Faithful
Nativename	خليفة
Residence	MedinaDamascusBaghdadCairoIstanbul
Termlength	Life tenure
Inaugural	Abu Bakr
Formation	8 June 632
Last	Abdülmecid II
Abolished	3 March 1924
Succession	Electoral during Rashidun Caliphate, later hereditary(Succession to Muhammad)

The Caliph ( / ḫalīfa / khalīfa) is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the ruler of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transcribed version of the Arabic word   which means "successor" or "representative". Following Muhammad's death in 632, the early leaders of the Muslim nation were called "Khalifat Rasul Allah", the political successors to the messenger of God (referring to Muhammad). Some academics prefer to transliterate the term as Khalīfah.

Caliphs were often also referred to as Amīr al-Mu'minīn (أمير المؤمنين) "Commander of the Faithful", Imam al-Ummah, Imam al-Mu'minīn (إمام المؤمنين), or more colloquially, leader of the Muslims. After the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib), the title was claimed by the Umayyads, the Abbasids, the Fatimids, and the Ottomans, and at times, by competing dynasties in Spain, Northern Africa, and Egypt. Most historical Muslim governors were called sultans or emirs, and gave allegiance to a caliph, but this caliph at times had very little real authority. The title has been defunct since the Republic of Turkey abolished the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924, although some individuals and groups have called for its restoration. (Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca and King of Hejaz, claimed the title briefly in 1924, and the Imams of Yemen had been using the title for centuries and continued to use the title until 1962.)

Succession to Muhammad

In his book The Early Islamic Conquests (1981), Fred Donner argues that the standard Arabian practice at the time was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves. There was no specified procedure for this shura or consultation. Candidates were usually, but not necessarily, from the same lineage as the deceased leader. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual heir.

Sunni Muslims believe and confirm that Muhammad's father-in-law Abu Bakr was chosen by the community and that this was the proper procedure. Sunnis further argue that a caliph should ideally be chosen by election or community consensus.

Shi'a Muslims believe that Ali, the son-in-law and cousin of Muhammad, should have replaced Muhammad as Caliph and that Caliphs were to assume authority through genetic lineage.

A third branch of Islam, the Ibadi Kharijites, believes that the caliphate rightly belongs to the greatest spiritual leader among Muslims, regardless of his lineage. They are currently an extremely small sect, found mainly in Oman.

Word Usage

Caliph is translated from the Arabic Khalifa (خليفة ) meaning "successor", "", or "lieutenant". It is used in the Qur'an to establish Adam's role as representative of Allah on earth. Kalifa is also used to describe the belief that man's role, in his real nature, is as khalifa or viceroy to Allah. The word is also most commonly used for the Islamic leader of the Ummah; starting with Muhammad and his line of successors.

The precise meaning of Khalifa is "representative". The first four Caliphs: Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Usman ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib are commonly known by Sunnis, mainly, as the Khulfa-e-Rashideen ("rightly guided successors") Caliphs. Each Caliph was a close companion of Muhammad during his prophethood.

History

Succession and Recognition

Sunni and Shi'a Muslims differ on the legitimacy of the reigns of the Khulfa-e-Rashideen, the first four Caliphs. The Sunnis follow the Caliphates of all four, while the Shi'ites recognize only the Caliphate of Ali and the short Caliphate of his son Hasan. This schism occurred following the death of Muhammad.

According to Sunni beliefs, Muhammad gave no specific directions as to the choosing of his successor when he died. At this time there were two customary means of selecting a leader: having a hereditary leader for general purposes, and choosing someone with good qualities in times of crisis or opportunities for action.

While Sunni and Shia Islam differ sharply on the conduct of a caliph and the right relations between a leader and a community, they do not differ on the underlying theory of stewardship. Both abhor waste of natural resources in particular to show off or demonstrate power.

In the initial stages the latter way of choosing leadership prevailed among the leading companions of Muhammad. Abu Bakr was elected as the first caliph or successor to Muhammad, with the other companions of Muhammad giving an oath of allegiance to him. Those opposing this method thought that Ali, Muhammad's nearest relative, should have succeeded him. However the appointment of the next two caliphs varied from the election of Abu Bakr. On his deathbed, Abu Bakr appointed Umar as his successor without an election by the community of Believers. The oath, approving the appointment of Umar, was taken only by the Companions present in Medina at the time. This led to certain groups disputing the authority of Umar. Umar also altered the way his successor would be found. Before he was assassinated, Umar decided that his successor would come from a group of six. This group included Ali and Uthman another companion of Muhammad. These six would have to establish from among themselves Umar's successor. Ultimately Uthman was chosen as Umar successor, becoming the third Caliph. After the assassination of Uthman, Ali was elected as the fourth Caliph.

Ali's Caliphate and the Rise of the Ummayyad Dynasty

Ali's reign as Caliph was plagued by great turmoil and internal strife. Ali was faced with multiple rebellions and insurrections. The primary one coming from Mu'awiyah a relative of Uthman and Governor of Damascus. Mu'awiyah attacked Ali at the Battle of Siffin. The battle lasted several months resulting in a stalemate. In order to avoid further bloodshed, Ali agreed to negotiate with Mu'waiyah. This caused a faction of some 4,000 strict traditionalists, known as Kharijites ("Seceders"), to abandon the fight. After defeating the Kharijites at the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali would later be assassinated by the Kharijite Ibn Muljam. Ali's son Hasan was elected as the fifth Caliph only to concede his title to Mu'awiyah a few months later. Mu'awiyah became the sixth Caliph, establishing the Ummayyad Dynasty.

Umayyads

Under the Umayyads, the Muslim empire grew rapidly. To the West, Muslim rule expanded across North Africa and into Spain. To the East, it expanded through Iran and ultimately to India. This made it one of the largest empires in the history of West Eurasia, extending its entire breadth.

However, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within Islam itself. Some Muslims supported prominent early Muslims like az-Zubayr; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the Banū Hashim, or his own lineage, the descendants of , should rule. There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays). Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hisham and Alid claims united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, the , "the Party of ", were again disappointed when the Abbasid dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib and not from . Following this disappointment, the finally split from the majority Sunni Muslims and formed what are today the several denominations.

Abbasids

The Abbasids would provide an unbroken line of caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. But by 940 the power of the caliphate under the Abbasids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the Turkish (and later the Mamluks in Egypt in the latter half of the 13th century), gained influence, and sultans and emirs became increasingly independent. However, the caliphate endured as both a symbolic position and a unifying entity for the Islamic world.

During the period of the Abbasid dynasty, Abbasid claims to the caliphate did not go unchallenged. The Said ibn Husayn of the Fatimid dynasty, which claimed descendancy of Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially covering Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine, before the Abbasid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171. The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over the Muslim provinces of Spain, reclaimed the title of Caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031.

Fatimids

The Fatimid Caliphate or al-Fātimiyyūn (Arabic الفاطميون) was an Berber Shi'a dynasty that ruled over varying areas of the Maghreb, Egypt, Sicily, Malta and the Levant from 5 January 909 to 1171. The caliphate was ruled by the Fatimids, who established the Egyptian city of Cairo as their capital. The term Fatimite is sometimes used to refer to the citizens of this caliphate. The ruling elite of the state belonged to the Ismaili branch of Shi'ism. The leaders of the dynasty were also Shia Ismaili Imams, hence, they had a religious significance to Ismaili Muslims. They are also part of the chain of holders of the office of Caliph, as recognized by most Muslims. Therefore, this constitutes a rare period in history in which some form of the Shia Imamate and the Caliphate were united to any degree, excepting the Caliphate of Ali himself. The Fatimids, however, are not recognized and counted by all Sunnis as a caliphate.

With exceptions, the Fatimids were reputed to exercise a degree of religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam as well as towards Jews, Maltese Christians and Coptic Christians.[1]

Shadow Caliphate

1258 saw the conquest of Baghdad and the execution of Abassid caliph al-Musta'sim by Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan. A surviving member of the Abbasid House was installed as Caliph at Cairo under the patronage of the Mamluk Sultanate three years later. However, the authority of this line of Caliphs was confined to ceremonial and religious matters, and later Muslim historians referred to it as a "shadow" caliphate.

Ottomans

As the Ottoman Empire grew in size and strength, Ottoman rulers beginning with Mehmed II began to claim caliphal authority. Their claim was strengthened when the Ottoman Empire defeated the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517 and took control of most Arab lands. The last Abbasid Caliph at Cairo, al-Mutawakkil III, was taken into custody and was transported to Istanbul, where he surrendered the Caliphate to Selim I.

Ottoman rulers were known primarily by the title of Sultan.

According to Barthold, the first time the title of caliph was used as a political instead of symbolic religious title by the Ottomans was the peace treaty with Russia in 1774. The outcome of this war was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations such as Crimea, were lost to the Christian Russian Empire. However, the Ottomans under Abdulhamid I claimed a diplomatic victory, the recognition of themselves as protectors of Muslims in Russia as part of the peace treaty. This was the first time the Ottoman caliph was acknowledged as having political significance outside of Ottoman borders by a European power. As a consequence of this diplomatic victory, as the Ottoman borders were shrinking, the powers of the Ottoman caliph increased.

Around 1880 Sultan Abdulhamid II reasserted the title as a way of countering creeping European colonialism in Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Muslims of British India. By the eve of the First World War, the Ottoman state, despite its weakness vis-à-vis Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. But the sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia.

Abolition of the institution

On 3 March 1924, the Turkish Grand National Assembly, on the initiative of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, dissolved the institution of the Caliphate, transferring its powers to the Turkish Grand National Assembly. Although it is widely believed that the Caliphate has been abolished, this is not the case. The powers have been vested in the Turkish Parliament, which in turn has delegated its authority to various Turkish government institutions. Shall the Republic of Turkey decide to reinstate the caliphate, it has the legislative power and also the religious authority to do so. The religious authority is derived from its possession of the Islamic relics. These Islamic Relics are housed in the Topkapi Palace compound and housed in specially designed bomb proof vaults.

Occasional demonstrations have been held calling for the reestablishment of the Caliphate.

"When the oath of allegiance has been taken for two Caliphs, kill the latter of them".

Umar bin Al-Khattab another disciple of Muhammad is reported to have said: "There is no way for two (leaders) together at any one time"

The 10th century Sunni scholar Imam of al-Haramayn (i.e. Makkah and Medinah) al-Juwayni wrote:

"Our (scholarly) associates agree on precluding the investing of two different individuals with the imamate at either end of the world. But, they add: If it should happen that two different persons were invested with the imamate, that would be analogous to the situation of two guardians contracting a marriage for the same woman to two different suitors without either being aware of the other's contract. The decision in the matter rests on the application of jurisprudence. My opinion on this issue is that investiture of two individuals with the imamate in a single locality within relatively restricted boundaries and limited provinces is not permitted and the investiture should be in accord with a consensus. But, when the distances are great and the two Imams quite remote from each other, there is room to allow it, although this cannot be established conclusively."

The 11th century Sunni jurist Al-Mawardi wrote:

"The investment of two rulers in two different cities is invalid in both cases, for the ummah may not have two rulers simultaneously, even though there are some dissenting voices who would make that permissible. Jurists are disagreed regarding which one of the two should be sovereign. One party take him to be the one elected in the city where the previous leader died, because its residents are more entitled to make the choice, the rest of the Community in other districts delegating the task to them... Others have suggested that each one of the two must give up the office in favour of his opponent, thus allowing the elections to opt for one or the other.."

Imam Al-Nawawi a 12th century authority of the Sunni Shafi'i madhhab said: "It is forbidden to give an oath to two caliphs or more, even in different parts of the world and even if they are far apart"

Imam Al-Juzairi, a more modern expert on the Fiqh of the four Sunni madhhabs said regarding the opinion of the four Imams, "...It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Imams in the world whether in agreement or discord."

Notable Caliphs

Abu Bakr: First rightly guided caliph. Subdued rebel tribes in the Ridda Wars.

Umar ibn al-Khattab: Second rightly guided caliph. During his reign, the Islamic empire expanded to include Egypt, Jerusalem, and Persia.

Uthman ibn Affan: Third rightly guided caliph. The Qur'an was compiled under his direction. Killed by rebels.

Ali ibn Abu Talib: Fourth and last rightly guided caliph, and considered the first imam by Shi'a Muslims. His reign was fraught with internal conflict.

Muawiya I: First caliph of the Umayyad Dynasty. Muawiya instituted dynastic rule by appointing his son Yazid as his successor, a trend that would continue through subsequent caliphates.

Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan - Fifth caliph of Ummayad Dynasty, translated important records into Arabic, established an Islamic currency system, led additional wars against the Byzantines and ordered construction of the Dome of the Rock.

Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz: Umayyad caliph considered by some (mainly Sunnis) to be a fifth rightly guided caliph.

Harun al-Rashid: Abbasid caliph during whose reign Baghdad became the world's preeminent center of trade, learning, and culture. Harun is the subject of many stories in the famous work 1001 Arabian Nights.

Al-Mustansir Billah: Fatimid Caliph who led the Shi'a Caliphate to its zenith; Cairo was a center of trade and intellectual activity during his reign.

Selim I the Brave: First Caliph of the Ottoman Empire with the conquest of Egypt and the Holy Cities. Defeated the powerful Shia Safavid Empire.

Suleiman the Magnificent: Early Ottoman Sultan during whose reign the Ottoman Empire reached its zenith.

Abdul Mejid II: Last Caliph of the Ottoman Dynasty, the 101st Caliph in line from Caliph Abu Bakr. On August 23, 1944, Abdul Mejid II died at his house in the Boulevard Suchet, Paris XVIe, France. He was buried at Medina, Saudi Arabia.

*

Several Arabic surnames found throughout the Middle East are derived from the word khalifa. These include: Khalif, Khalifa, Khillif, Kalif, Kalaf, Khalaf, and Kaylif. The usage of this title as a surname is comparable to the existence of surnames such as King, Duke, and Noble in the English language.

Dynasties

The more important dynasties include:

The Umayyad dynasty in Damascus (661–750), followed by:

The Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad (750–1258), and later in Cairo (under Mameluk control) (1260–1517).

The Shi'ite Fatimid dynasty in North Africa and Egypt (909–1171). Not universally accepted and not currently included in the list here.

The Rahmanids, a surviving branch of the Damascus Umayyads, established "in exile" as emirs of Córdoba, Spain, declared themselves Caliphs (known as the Caliphs of Cordoba; not universally accepted; 929–1031).

The Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Spain (not universally accepted; 1145–1269). Traced their descent not from Muhammad, but from a puritanic reformer in Morocco who claimed to be the Mahdi (a puritanic reformer in Morocco, bringing down the "decadent" Almoravid emirate) whose son established a sultanate and claimed to be a caliph.

The Ottomans (1517–1924; main title Padishah, also known as Great Sultan etc.), assumed the title after defeating the Mamluk Sultanate and used it sporadically between the 16th and early 20th centuries.

Note on the overlap of Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates: After the massacre of the Umayyad clan by the Abbassids, one lone prince escaped and fled to North Africa, which remained loyal to the Umayyads. This was Abd-ar-rahman I. From there, he proceeded to Spain, where he overthrew and united the provinces conquered by previous Umayyad Caliphs (in 712 and 712). From 756 to 929, this Umayyad domain in Spain was an independent emirate, until Abd-ar-rahman III reclaimed the title of Caliph for his dynasty. The Umayyad Emirs of Spain are not listed in the summary below because they did not claim the caliphate until 929. For a full listing of all the Umayyad rulers in Spain see the Umayyad article.

Claims to the caliphate

Many local rulers throughout Islamic history have claimed to be caliphs. Most claims were ignored outside their limited domains. In many cases, these claims were made by rebels against established authorities and died when the rebellion was crushed. Notable claimants include:

Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr, who held the Hijaz against the Ummayad، certain scholars considered him a legitimate caliph, being a close companion of Muhammad. His rebellion, centered in Makkah, was crushed by an infamous Umayyad general, Hajjaj. Hajjaj's attack caused some damage in Makkah, and necessitated the rebuilding of the Kaaba.

Caliph of the Sudan, a Songhai king of the Sahel.

The Zaydi Imams of Yemen, had been using the title for centuries and continued to use the title till 1962.

Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, proclaimed himself caliph at Medina (see Sharifian Caliphate) two days after the office was abolished by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The Saudis, realizing that a unified Islamic government would pose a threat to the absolute monarchy that they held over Arabia, quickly defeated his movement.

See also

Ahadith on virtues of Abu Bakr

Hadiths on virtues of Umar bin Khattab

Ahadith on virtues of Uthman bin Affan

Ahadith on virtues of Ali bin Abu Talib

Sunni view of the Sahaba

Amir al-Mu'minin

Caliphate

Khalifatul Masih

List of Caliphs

Sheikh ul-Islam

Succession to Muhammad

References

Bibliography

Crone, Patricia, and Martin Hinds. God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 0521321859.

Donner, Fred. The Early Islamic Conquests. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1981. ISBN 0691053278.

External links

Ahmadiyya Muslim Caliphs

Worldstatesmen.org

Hizb-ut-tahrir UK website

Khilafah.com official website

Caliphate.eu official website

Islam's World Kahifa Election

Category:Arabic words and phrases * * Category:Gubernatorial titles Category:Heads of state Category:Islamic philosophy Category:Religious leadership roles Category:Sharia Category:Noble titles Category:Titles of national or ethnic leadership Category:Turkish titles

Name	Ennio Morricone
Background	non_performing_personnel
Birth date	November 10, 1928
Alias	Maestro
Genre	Film music, Classical music, Pop music, Jazz, Lounge music, Easy listening
Origin	Rome, Italy
Occupation	Composer, orchestrator, music director, conductor, trumpeter
Associated acts	Bruno Nicolai, Alessandro Alessandroni, Mina, Yo-Yo Ma, Mireille Mathieu, Joan Baez, Andrea Bocelli, Roger Waters, Sarah Brightman, Amii Stewart, Paul Anka, Milva, Gianni Morandi, Dalida, Catherine Spaak, Pet Shop Boys, Hayley Westenra, and others
Years active	1946 – present
Url	http://www.enniomorricone.it

Ennio Morricone, Grande Ufficiale OMRI (born November 10, 1928) is an Italian composer and conductor.

He is widely acknowledged as one of the most prolific and influential composers of his era, particularly recognised for his film scores. He has composed and arranged scores for more than 500 film and TV productions and is well-known for his long-term collaborations with internationally acclaimed directors such as Sergio Leone, Brian De Palma, Barry Levinson, and Giuseppe Tornatore.

He wrote the characteristic film scores of Leone's Spaghetti Westerns A Fistful of Dollars (1964), For a Few Dollars More (1965), The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966) and Once Upon a Time in the West (1968). In the 80s, Morricone composed the scores for John Carpenter's horror movie The Thing (1982), Leone's Once Upon a Time in America (1984), Roland Joffé's The Mission (1986), Brian De Palma's The Untouchables (1987) and Giuseppe Tornatore's Cinema Paradiso (1988). His more recent compositions include the scores for Oliver Stone's U Turn (1997), Tornatore's The Legend of 1900 (1998) and Malèna (2000), De Palma's Mission to Mars (2000), Lajos Koltai's Fateless (2005), and Tornatore's Baaria - La porta del vento (2009).

Morricone has received two Grammy Awards, two Golden Globes, five BAFTAs in 1979–1992, seven David di Donatello, eight Nastro d'Argento, and the Polar Music Prize in 2010. In 2007, he received the Academy Honorary Award "for his magnificent and multifaceted contributions to the art of film music". The composer also has been nominated for five Academy Awards for Best Original Score during 1979–2001.

Life and career

Classical music

Ennio Morricone was born in Rome, the son of Libera and Mario Morricone, a jazz trumpeter. Morricone wrote his first compositions when he was six years old and was encouraged to develop his natural talents. Compelled to take up the trumpet, he attended the National Academy of Santa Cecilia to take lessons on the instrument at the age of nine. Morricone formally entered the conservatory in 1940 at the age of 12, enrolling in a four-year harmony program. According to various reports, he completed it in either two years or six months (date approximate). He studied the trumpet, composition, choral music, and choral direction under Goffredo Petrassi, who deeply influenced him and to whom Morricone has dedicated concert pieces.

These were the difficult years of World War II in the heavily bombed "open city"; the composer remarked that what he mostly remembered of those years was the hunger. His wartime experiences influenced many of his scores for films set in that period.

After he graduated, he continued to work in classical composition and arrangement. In 1946, Morricone received his trumpet diploma and in the same year he composed "Il Mattino" ("The Morning") for voice and piano on a text by Fukuko, first in a group of 7 "youth" Lieder. Other serious compositions are "Imitazione" (1947) for voice and piano on a text by Giacomo Leopardi and "Intimita" for voice and piano on a text by Olinto Dini.

In the early 1950s, Morricone began writing his first background music for radio dramas. Nonetheless he continued composing classical pieces as "Distacco I e Distacco II" for voice and piano on a text by Ranieri Gnoli, "Verra' la Morte" for contralto and piano on a text by Cesare Pavese, "Oboe Sommerso" for baritone and five instruments on a text by Salvatore Quasimodo.

Although the composer had received the "Diploma in Instrumentation for Band" (fanfare) in 1952, his studies concluded in 1954, obtaining a diploma in Composition under the composer Goffredo Petrassi. In 1955, Morricone started to write or arrange music for films credited to other already well-known composers (ghost writing). He occasionally adopted Anglicized pseudonyms, such as Dan Savio and Leo Nichols.

Morricone wrote more works in the climate of the Italian avant-garde. A few of these compositions have been made available on CD, such as "Ut", his trumpet concerto dedicated to the soloist Mauro Maur, one of his favorite musicians; some have yet to be premiered. From the mid-sixties and onwards, he was part of Gruppo di Improvvisazione di Nuova Consonanza, a group of composers who performed and recorded avant garde free improvisations, even scoring a few films during the 1970s.

Public reputation

In 1956, Morricone started to support his family by playing in a jazz band and arranging pop songs for the Italian broadcasting service RAI. Performed by Mina, it was a standout track of Studio Uno 66, the fifth-biggest-selling album of the year 1966 in Italy. Morricone's sophisticated arrangement of "Se telefonando" was a combination of melodic trumpet lines, Hal Blaine–style drumming, a string set, a '60s Europop female choir, and intensive subsonic-sounding trombones. The Italian Hitparade #7 song had eight transitions of tonality building tension throughout the chorus. In the reader's poll conducted by the la Repubblica newspaper to celebrate Mina's 70th anniversary in 2010, 30,000 voters picked the track as the best song ever recorded by Mina. Throughout the '60s Morricone composed songs for other artists including Milva, Gianni Morandi, Paul Anka, Amii Stewart, and Mireille Mathieu.

Leone film scores

Well-versed in a variety of musical idioms from his RCA experience, Morricone began composing film scores in the early 1960s. The scores included psychedelic accompaniment for Mario Bava's superhero romp (1968). The next year marked the start of a series of evocative scores for Dario Argento's stylized thrillers, including The Bird with the Crystal Plumage (1969), The Cat o' Nine Tails (1971), and Four Flies on Grey Velvet (1974). and Le Professionnel (1981) as well as the TV series The Life and Times of David Lloyd George (1981). Morricone worked as the conductor of seasons 3 to 5 of the series. He also worked as the music supervisor for the television project La bibbia ("The Bible"). In the late 1990s, he collaborated with his son, Andrea, on the Ultimo crime dramas. Their collaboration yielded the BAFTA-winning Nuovo cinema Paradiso. In 2003, Ennio Morricone scored another epic, for Japanese television, called Musashi and was the Taiga drama about Miyamoto Musashi, Japan's legendary warrior. A part of his "applied music" is now applied to Italian television films.

Concerts and conducting

Since 2001, Morricone has been on a world tour, the latter part sponsored by Giorgio Armani, with the Orchestra Roma Sinfonietta, touring London (Barbican 2001; 75th birthday Concerto, Royal Albert Hall 2003), Paris, Verona, and Tokyo. Morricone performed his classic film scores at the Munich Philharmonie in 2005 and Hammersmith Apollo Theatre in London, UK, on 2006-12-01 and 2006-12-02.

He made his North American concert debut on January 29, 2007 Auditorio Nacional in Mexico City and four days later at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. The previous evening, Morricone had already presented at the United Nations a concert comprising some of his film themes, as well as the cantata Voci dal silenzio to welcome the new Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon. A Los Angeles Times review bemoaned the poor acoustics and opined of Morricone: "His stick technique is adequate, but his charisma as a conductor is zero." Morricone, though, has said: "Conducting has never been important to me. If the audience comes for my gestures, they had better stay outside."

On December 12, 2007, Morricone conducted the Roma Sinfonietta at the Wiener Stadthalle in Vienna, presenting a selection of his own works. Together with the Roma Sinfonietta and the Belfast Philharmonic Choir, Morricone performed at the Opening Concerts of the Belfast Festival at Queen's, in the Waterfront Hall on October 17 and 18, 2008. Morricone and Roma Sinfonietta also held a concert at the Belgrade Arena (Belgrade, Serbia) on February 14, 2009.

On April 10, 2010, Morricone conducted a concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London with the Roma Sinfonietta and (as in all of his previous London concerts) the Crouch End Festival Chorus. On August 27, 2010, he conducted a concert in Hungary. Two other concerts took place in Verona and Sofia (Bulgaria) on 11 and 17 September 2010.

Recent activity

Morricone provided the string arrangements on Morrissey's "Dear God Please Help Me" from the album Ringleader of the Tormentors in 2006.

Quentin Tarantino originally wanted Morricone to compose the soundtrack for his most recent film, Inglourious Basterds. However, Morricone refused because of the sped-up production schedule of the film. Tarantino did use several Morricone tracks from previous films in the soundtrack.

Morricone instead wrote the music for Baaria - La porta del vento, the most recent movie by Giuseppe Tornatore. The composer is also writing music for Tornatore's upcoming movie Leningrad.

In spring and summer 2010, Morricone worked with Hayley Westenra for a collaboration on her upcoming album Paradiso, which was released in New Zealand on 18 April 2011. The album features new songs written by Morricone, as well as some of his best known film compositions of the last 50 years. Hayley recorded the album with Morricone's orchestra in Rome during the summer of 2010. Paradiso will be released in Japan on June 8 2011, the UK on August 29 2011, and in the United States on October 18 2011.

Personal life

On 13 October 1956, he married Maria Travia and had his first son, Marco, in 1957. Travia has written lyrics to complement her husband's pieces. Her works include the Latin texts for The Mission. They have three sons and a daughter, in order of birth: Marco, Alessandra, the conductor and film composer Andrea (Andrew), and Giovanni (a filmmaker who lives in New York City).

Influence

Oscar-winning film composer Hans Zimmer has called Ennio Morricone his favorite composer in the world. Zimmer's Parlay in Soundtrack is a tribute to Ennio Morricone's Man with a Harmonica.

Morricone's influence also extends into the realm of pop music. Hugo Montenegro had a hit with a version of the main theme from The Good, the Bad and the Ugly in both the United Kingdom and the United States. This was followed by his album of Morricone's music in 1968.

Aside from his music having been sampled by everyone from rappers (Jay-Z) to electronic outfits (the Orb), Morricone wrote "Se Telefonando", which became Italy's fifth biggest-selling record of 1966 and has since been re-recorded by Françoise Hardy, among many others, and scored the strings for "Dear God, Please Help Me" on Morrissey's 2006 "Ringleader of the Tormentors" album.

Morricone's film music was also recorded by many artists. John Zorn recorded an album of Morricone's music, The Big Gundown, with Keith Rosenberg in the mid-1980s. Lyricists and poets have helped convert some of his melodies into a songbook.

Morricone collaborated with world music artists, like Portuguese fado singer Dulce Pontes (in 2003 with Focus, an album praised by Paulo Coelho and where his songbook can be sampled) and virtuoso cellist Yo-Yo Ma (in 2004), who both recorded albums of Morricone classics with the Roma Sinfonietta Orchestra and Morricone himself conducting.

In 1990 the American singer Amii Stewart, best known for the 1979 disco hit "Knock On Wood", recorded a tribute album entitled Pearls - Amii Stewart Sings Ennio Morricone for the RCA label, including a selection of the composer's best known songs. Since the mid 1980s Stewart resides in Italy, the Pearls album features Rome's Philharmonic Orchestra and was co-produced by Morricone himself.

The 2003 Quentin Tarantino film Kill Bill Volumes 1 & 2 makes extensive use of several Morricone pieces from several 1960s film scores. The 2009 film Inglourious Basterds also uses many Morricone pieces, as well as sharing "Il Mercenario (Ripresa)" with Kill Bill.

Metallica uses Morricone's The Ecstasy of Gold as an intro at their concerts (shock jocks Opie and Anthony also use the song at the start of their XM Satellite Radio and CBS Radio shows.) The San Francisco Symphony Orchestra also played it on Metallica's Symphonic rock album S&M;. Ramones used the theme from The Good, the Bad and the Ugly as a concert intro. The theme from A Fistful Of Dollars is also used as a concert intro by The Mars Volta.

His influence extends from Michael Nyman to Muse. He even has his own tribute band, a large group which started in Australia, touring as The Ennio Morricone Experience.

Morricone is mentioned by Myles, a musician/scorer (played by Jack Black in "The Holiday" [2006 film]), as creator of magical sounds that formed a charracter as much as lines of music in his films. This played out in a scene at a video rental store between Black and actress Kate Winslett.

In 2007, the tribute album We All Love Ennio Morricone was released. It features performances by various artists, including Sarah Brightman, Andrea Bocelli, Celine Dion, Bruce Springsteen and Metallica.

British band Muse cites Morricone as an influence for the songs "City of Delusion", "Hoodoo", and "Knights of Cydonia" on their album Black Holes and Revelations.. The band has recently started playing the song "Man With A Harmonica" live played by Chris Wolstenholme, as an intro to Knights of Cydonia.

In January, 2010, tenor Donald Braswell II released his album "We Fall and We Rise Again" on which he presented his tribute to Ennio Morricone with his original composition entitled "Ennio".

Discography

Ennio Morricone has sold over 50 million records worldwide, including 6.5 million copies in France and more than two million albums in Korea.

Top worldwide film grosses

Ennio Morricone has been involved with eight movies grossing over $25 million at the box office:

{|class="wikitable" |- ! Year !! Title !! Director !! Gross |- | 1966 || The Good, The Bad & The Ugly || Sergio Leone || $25,100,000 |- | 1977 || || John Boorman || $30,749,142 |- | 1987 || The Untouchables || Brian De Palma || $76,270,454 |- | 1991 || Bugsy || Barry Levinson || $49,114,016 |- | 1993 || In the Line of Fire || Wolfgang Petersen || $176,997,168 |- | 1994 || Wolf || Mike Nichols || $131,002,597 |- | 1994 || Disclosure || Barry Levinson || $214,015,089 |- | 2000 || Mission to Mars || Brian De Palma || $110,983,407 |}

Other successful movies with Morricone's work are Kill Bill Vol. 1 & 2 (2003, 2004) and Inglourious Basterds (2009), though the tracks used are sampled from older pictures.

Awards

Academy Honorary Award

Morricone received an honorary Academy Award on February 25, 2007, presented by Clint Eastwood, "for his magnificent and multifaceted contributions to the art of film music." With the statuette came a standing ovation. Though nominated five times, he had not previously received an Oscar. In conjunction with the honor, Morricone released a tribute album, We All Love Ennio Morricone, that featured as its centerpiece Celine Dion's rendition of "I Knew I Loved You" (based on "Deborah's Theme" from Once Upon a Time in America), which she performed at the ceremony. Behind-the-scenes studio production and recording footage of "I Knew I Loved You" can be viewed in the debut episode of the QuincyJones.com Podcast. The lyric, as with Morricone's Love Affair, had been penned by Oscar-winning husband-and-wife duo Marilyn and Alan Bergman. Morricone's acceptance speech was in his native Italian tongue and was interpreted by Clint Eastwood, who stood to his left. Eastwood and Morricone had in fact met two days earlier—for the first time in 40 years—at a reception.

Morricone and Alex North are the only composers to receive the honorary Oscar since the award's introduction in 1928.

List of prizes and awards

1965 — Nastro d'Argento for A Fistful of Dollars

1967 — Diapason d'Or

1969 — Premio Spoleto Cinema

1970 — Nastro d'argento for Metti una sera a cena

1971 — Nastro d'argento for Sacco e Vanzetti

1972 — Cork Film International for La califfa

1979 — Academy Awards nomination for Days of Heaven

1979 — Premio Vittorio de Sica

1981 — Premio della critica discografica for Il prato

1984 — Premio Zurlini

1985 — Nastro d'argento and BAFTA for Once Upon A Time In America

1986 — Academy Awards Nomination, BAFTA and Golden Globe Awards for The Mission

1986 — Premio Vittorio de Sica

1988 — Academy Awards nomination, Nastro d'argento, BAFTA and Grammy Awards for The Untouchables

1988 — David di Donatello for Gli occhiali d'oro

1989 — David di Donatello for Nuovo Cinema Paradiso

1989 — Ninth Annual Ace Winner for Il Giorno prima

1989 — Pardo d'Oro alla carriera Locarno Film Festival

1990 — BAFTA, Prix Fondation Sacem del XLIII Cannes Film Festival and David di Donatello for Nuovo Cinema Paradiso

1991 — David di Donatello for Stanno tutti bene

1992 — Academy Award nomination for Bugsy

1992 — Pentagramma d'oro

1992 — Premio Michelangelo

1992 — Grolla d'oro alla carriera (Saint Vincent)

1993 — David di Donatello and Efebo d'Argento for Jonas che visse nella balena

1993 — Globo d'oro Stampa estera in Italia

1993 — Gran Premio SACEM audiovisivi

1994 — ASCAP Golden Soundtrack Award (Los Angeles)

1995 — Premio Rota

1995 — Golden Lion Honorary Award by the Venice Film Festival

1996 — Premio citta' di Roma

1996 — Premio Cappelli

1996 — Premio Accademia di Santa Cecilia

1997 — Premio Flaiano

1998 — Columbus Prize

1999 — Erich Wolfgang Korngold Internationaler Preis für Film

1999 — Exsquibbidles Film Academy lifetime achievement award

2000 — Golden Globe Award for The Legend of 1900 (1998)

2000 — David di Donatello and Nastro d'argentofor for Canone Inverso

2000 — Academy Awards nomination for Malèna

2000 — Nastro d'argento for Malèna

2001 — Mikeldi de Honor at "Zinebi - International Festival of Documentary and Short Films" of Bilbao

2002 — Honorary Degree by the "Seconda Università" of Rome

2003 — Golden Eagle Award by the Russian National Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences of Russia for 72 Meters (film)

2003 — Honorary Senator of the Filmscoring Class of the Hochschule für Musik und Theater München

2006 — Grand Officer Award from President of the Italian Republic Carlo Azeglio Ciampi

2007 — Honorary Academy Award for career achievement

2007 — The Film & TV Music Award for Lifetime Achievement

2007 — David di Donatello and Nastro d'argento for La sconosciuta

2008 — Grammy Award for Best Rock Instrumental, performed by Bruce Springsteen

2008 — Medal of the French Legion of Honour

2009 — Medal of Merits for Macedonia

2009 — America Award of the Italy-USA Foundation

2010 — Polar Music Prize of the Royal Swedish Academy of the Arts

Sources

Horace, B. Music from the Movies, film music journal double issue 45/46, 2005: ISSN 0967-8131

Miceli, Sergio. Morricone, la musica, il cinema. Milan: Mucchi/Ricordi, 1994: ISBN 88-7592-398-1

Miceli, Sergio. "Morricone, Ennio". The Nesw Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.

Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 3. Dal 1960 al 1969. Gremese, 1993: ISBN 88-7605-593-2

Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 4. Dal 1970 al 1979* A/L. Gremese, 1996: ISBN 88-7605-935-0

Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 4. Dal 1970 al 1979** M/Z. Gremese, 1996: ISBN 88-7605-969-5

Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 5. Dal 1980 al 1989* A/L. Gremese, 2000: ISBN 88-7742-423-0

Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 5. Dal 1980 al 1989** M/Z. Gremese, 2000: ISBN 88-7742-429-X

References

Further reading

Lhassa, Anne, and Jean Lhassa: Ennio Morricone: biographie. Les Planches. Lausanne: Favre; [Paris]: [diff. Inter-forum], 1989. ISBN 2-8289-0418-0,

Wagner, Thorsten. "Improvisation als 'weiteste Ausdehnung des Begriffs der aleatorischen Musik': Franco Evangelisti und die Improvisationsgruppe Nuova Consonanza". In ...hin zu einer neuen Welt: Notate zu Franco Evangelisti, edited by Harald Muenz,.48-60, 2002. Saarbrücken: Pfau-Verlag. ISBN 3-89727-177-X.

Webb, Michael D. Italian 20th Century Music: The Quest for Modernity. London: Kahn & Averill. ISBN 978-1-871082-89-0

External links

Ennio Morricone myspace

The Ennio Morricone Online Community

Once upon a Time in the West">Streaming audio of Morricone's "The Man with the Harmonica," from his soundtrack to Once upon a Time in the West

TÊTE-À-TÊTE: Ennio Morricone by Nic Harcourt at Los Angeles Times Magazine

Category:1928 births Category:20th-century classical composers Category:Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia alumni Category:Academy Honorary Award recipients Category:BAFTA winners (people) Category:European Film Awards winners (people) Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Italian composers Category:Italian film score composers Category:Living people Category:Virgin Records artists Category:People from Rome (city) Category:Spaghetti Western composers

Elena Alexandrovna Likhovtseva ( ; born 8 September 1975 in Alma-Ata, Kazakh SSR, Soviet Union, now Kazakhstan) is a Russian tennis player, currently inactive. She turned professional in January 1992 at the age of 16.

Likhovtseva's career best appearance in a Grand Slam was when she reached the semi finals of the French Open 2005 before she was defeated by Mary Pierce, 6–1 6–1. Elena is also one of the few people in either the men's or women's game to have lost a tiebreaker from 6–0 up (this was also against Mary Pierce, in Moscow; Pierce went on to win the tournament). Together with Mahesh Bhupathi, she won the Wimbledon Mixed Doubles championship in 2002. She has also been a runner-up in a number of other contests, including the Australian Open women's doubles event in 2004, French Open Women's Doubles in 2004 and Mixed Doubles in 2003, and the 2000 and 2004 US Open Women's Doubles. In the 2004 Summer Olympics, she won the first round of the Women's Doubles with partner Svetlana Kuznetsova, but was defeated in the second. She won the 2007 Australian Open Mixed Doubles championship with Daniel Nestor. After losing all four singles of the year, Likhovtseva's best performance in 2008 was the quarter-finals at the Sony Ericsson Open in Miami with Lisa Raymond.

Grand Slam record

Australian Open

*Doubles finalist: 2004 (w/ Kuznetsova)

*Mixed Doubles finalist: 2006 (w/ Nestor)

*Mixed Doubles champion: 2007 (w/ Nestor)

French Open

*Doubles finalist: 2004 (w/ Kuznetsova)

*Mixed Doubles finalist: 2003 (w/ Bhupathi, 2006 (w/ Nestor)

Wimbledon

*Mixed Doubles champion: 2002 (w/ Bhupathi)

US Open

*Doubles finalist: 2000 (w/ Black), 2004 (w/ Kuznetsova)

Major finals

Grand Slam finals

Doubles: 4 (0-4)

{| class="sortable wikitable" |- |width="80"|Outcome |width="50"|Year |width="200"|Championship |width="75"|Surface |width="200"|Partner |width="200"|Opponents in the final |width="200"|Score in the final |-bgcolor="#CCCCFF" |bgcolor="FFA07A"|Runner-up || 2000 || U.S. Open || Hard || Cara Black || Julie Halard-Decugis Ai Sugiyama || 6–0, 1–6, 6–1 |-bgcolor="#FFFFCC" |bgcolor="FFA07A"|Runner-up || 2004 || Australian Open || Hard || Svetlana Kuznetsova || Virginia Ruano Paola Suárez || 6–4, 6–3 |-bgcolor="#EBC2AF" |bgcolor="FFA07A"|Runner-up || 2004 || French Open || Clay || Svetlana Kuznetsova || Virginia Ruano Paola Suárez || 6–0, 6–3 |-bgcolor="#CCCCFF" |bgcolor="FFA07A"|Runner-up || 2004 || U.S. Open 2 || Hard || Svetlana Kuznetsova || Virginia Ruano Paola Suárez || 6–4, 7–5 |}

Mixed doubles: 5 (2-3)

{| class="sortable wikitable" |- |width="80"|Outcome |width="50"|Year |width="200"|Championship |width="75"|Surface |width="200"|Partner |width="200"|Opponents in the final |width="200"|Score in the final |-bgcolor="#CCFFCC" |bgcolor="98FB98"|Winner || 2002 || Wimbledon || Grass || Mahesh Bhupati || Daniela Hantuchová Kevin Ullyett || 6–2, 7–5 |-bgcolor="#EBC2AF" |bgcolor="FFA07A"|Runner-up || 2003 || French Open || Clay || Mahesh Bhupathi || Lisa Raymond Mike Bryan || 6–3, 6–4 |-bgcolor="#FFFFCC" |bgcolor="FFA07A"|Runner-up || 2006 || Australian Open || Hard || Daniel Nestor || Martina Hingis Mahesh Bhupathi || 6–3, 6–3 |-bgcolor="#EBC2AF" |bgcolor="FFA07A"|Runner-up || 2006 || French Open (2) || Clay || Daniel Nestor || Katarina Srebotnik Nenad Zimonjić || 6–3, 6–4 |-bgcolor="#FFFFCC" |bgcolor="98FB98"|Winner || 2007 || Australian Open || Hard || Daniel Nestor || Victoria Azarenka Max Mirnyi || 6–4, 6–4 |}

.|right|150px]]

Career finals

Singles

;Wins (3) {| class="sortable wikitable" |- |width=50|No. |width=125|Date |width=250|Tournament |width=75|Surface |width=200|Opponent in the final |width=200|Score in the final |- | 1. | 17 October 1993 | Montpellier, France | Carpet | Dominique Monami | 6–3, 6–4 |- | 2. | 5 January 1997 | Gold Coast, Australia | Hard | Ai Sugiyama | 3–6, 7–6(7), 6–3 |- | 3. | 28 August 2004 | Forest Hills, USA | Hard | Iveta Benešová | 6–3, 6–2 |- |}

Doubles

;Wins (27)

{| class="sortable wikitable" |- |width=50|No. |width=125|Date |width=250|Tournament |width=75|Category |width=200|Partner |width=200|Opponent in the final |width=200|Score in the final |- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" | 1. | 11 January 1998 | Gold Coast, Australia | III | Ai Sugiyama | Sung-Hee Park Shi-Ting Wang | 1–6, 6–3, 6–4 |- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" | 2. | 1 November 1998 | Luxembourg, Luxembourg | III | Ai Sugiyama | Larisa Neiland Elena Tatarkova | 6–7(3), 6–3, 2–0 ret. |- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" | 3. | 8 November 1998 | Leipzig, Germany | II | Ai Sugiyama | Manon Bollegraf Irina Spîrlea | 6–3, 6–7(2), 6–1 |- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" | 4. | 15 November 1998 | Philadelphia, U.S. | II | Ai Sugiyama | Monica Seles Natasha Zvereva | 7–5, 4–6, 6–2 |- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" | 5. | 17 January 1999 | Sydney, Australia | II | Ai Sugiyama | Mary Joe Fernandez Anke Huber | 6–3, 2–6, 6–0 |- bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | 6. | 4 April 1999 | Hilton Head, U.S. | I | Jana Novotná | Barbara Schett Patty Schnyder | 6–1, 6–4 |- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" | 7. | 23 May 1999 | Strasbourg, France | III | Ai Sugiyama | Alexandra Fusai Nathalie Tauziat | 2–6, 7–6(6), 6–1 |- bgcolor="#f0f8ff" | 8. | 14 January 2001 | Hobart, Australia | VS | Cara Black | Ruxandra Dragomir Virginia Ruano Pascual | 6–4, 6–1 |- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" | 9. | 6 May 2001 | Hamburg, Germany | II | Cara Black | Květa Peschke Barbara Rittner | 6–2, 4–6, 6–2 |- bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | 10. | 20 May 2001 | Rome, Italy | I | Cara Black | Paola Suárez Patricia Tarabini | 6–1, 6–1 |- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" | 11. | 17 June 2001 | Birmingham, Great Britain | III | Cara Black | Kimberly Po-Messerli Nathalie Tauziat | 6–1, 6–2 |- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" | 12. | 5 August 2001 | San Diego, U.S. | II | Cara Black | Martina Hingis Anna Kournikova | 6–4, 1–6, 6–4 |- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" | 13. | 25 August 2001 | New Haven, U.S. | II | Cara Black | Jelena Dokić Nadia Petrova |6–0, 3–6, 6–2 |- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" | 14. | 30 September 2001 | Leipzig, Germany | II | Nathalie Tauziat | Květa Peschke Barbara Rittner | 6–4, 6–2 |- bgcolor="#66CCFF" | 15. | 7 April 2002 | Sarasota, U.S. | IV | Jelena Dokić | Els Callens Conchita Martínez | 6–7(5), 6–3, 6–3 |- bgcolor="#f0f8ff" | 16. | 12 January 2003 | Hobart, Australia | VS | Cara Black | Barbara Schett Patricia Wartusch | 7–5, 7–6(1) |- bgcolor="#66CCFF" | 17. | 9 February 2003 | Hyderabad, India | IV | Iroda Tulyaganova | Evgenia Kulikovskaya Tatiana Poutchek | 6–4, 6–4 |- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" | 18. | 10 January 2004 | Gold Coast, Australia | III | Svetlana Kuznetsova | Liezel Huber Magdalena Maleeva | 6–3, 6–4 |- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" | 19. | 6 March 2004 | Doha, Qatar | II | Svetlana Kuznetsova | Janette Husárová Conchita Martínez | 7–6(4), 6–2 |- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" | 20. | 31 October 2004 | Linz, Austria | II | Janette Husárová | Nathalie Dechy Patty Schnyder | 6–2, 7–5 |- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" | 21. | 8 January 2005 | Gold Coast, Australia | III | Magdalena Maleeva | Maria Elena Camerin Silvia Farina Elia | 6–3, 5–7, 6–1 |- bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | 22. | 6 February 2005 | Tokyo (Pan Pacific), Japan | I | Janette Husárová | Lindsay Davenport Corina Morariu | 6–4, 6–3 |- bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | 23. | 8 May 2005 | Berlin, Germany | I | Vera Zvonareva | Cara Black Liezel Huber | 4–6, 6–4, 6–3 |- bgcolor="#CCFFCC" | 24. | 25 September 2005 | Kolkata, India | III | Anastasia Myskina | Neha Uberoi Shikha Uberoi | 6–1, 6–0 |- bgcolor="#66CCFF" | 25. | 7 January 2006 | Auckland, Australia | IV | Vera Zvonareva | Émilie Loit Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová | 6–3, 6–4 |- bgcolor="#CCCCFF" | 26. | 7 May 2006 | Warsaw, Poland | II | Anastasia Myskina | Anabel Medina Garrigues Katarina Srebotnik | 6–3, 6–4 |- bgcolor="#66CCFF" | 27. | 13 January 2007 | Hobart, Australia | IV | Elena Vesnina | Anabel Medina Garrigues Virginia Ruano Pascual | 2–6, 6–1, 6–2 |}

Performance timelines

Singles

A = did not participate in the tournament

SR = the ratio of the number of singles tournaments won to the number of those tournaments played

LQ = lost in the qualifying tournament

Doubles

References

External links

Category:1975 births Category:Living people Category:Olympic tennis players of Russia Category:Sportspeople from Moscow Category:Russian female tennis players Category:Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics Category:Tennis players at the 2000 Summer Olympics Category:Tennis players at the 2004 Summer Olympics

Name	Anton Chekhov
Caption	May 5, 1889
Alt	Chekhov seated at a desk
Birth name	Anton Pavlovich Chekhov
Birth date	January 29, 1860
Birth place	Taganrog, Russian Empire
Death date	July 15, 1904
Death place	Badenweiler, German Empire
Occupation	Physician, short story writer, playwright
Nationality	Russian
Influences	Ivan Turgenev, Nikolai Gogol, Henrik Ibsen, Leo Tolstoy, Honoré de Balzac, Guy de Maupassant, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Émile Zola, Nikolai Leskov, Dmitry Grigorovich, Aleksandr Ostrovsky
Influenced	Constantin Stanislavski, Maxim Gorky, Mikhail Bulgakov, John Cheever, Cornel West, James Joyce, Ernest Hemingway, Katherine Mansfield, Vladimir Nabokov, J. D. Salinger, Tennessee Williams, Virginia Woolf, Frank O'Connor, Bob Dylan, Alice Munro, Raymond Carver, David Means, Guram Dochanashvili, Charles Bukowski, Ivan Bunin, Sreda literary group
Signature	Подпись_Антон_Чехов.png

Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (, ; 29 January 1860 – 15 July 1904) was a Russian short-story writer, playwright and physician, considered to be one of the greatest short-story writers in the history of world literature. His career as a dramatist produced four classics and his best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics. Chekhov practiced as a doctor throughout most of his literary career: "Medicine is my lawful wife", he once said, "and literature is my mistress."

Chekhov renounced the theatre after the disastrous reception of The Seagull in 1896; but the play was revived to acclaim in 1898 by Constantin Stanislavski's Moscow Art Theatre, which subsequently also produced Uncle Vanya and premiered Chekhov's last two plays, Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchard. These four works present a challenge to the acting ensemble as well as to audiences, because in place of conventional action Chekhov offers a "theatre of mood" and a "submerged life in the text."

Chekhov had at first written stories only for financial gain, but as his artistic ambition grew, he made formal innovations which have influenced the evolution of the modern short story. His originality consists in an early use of the stream-of-consciousness technique, later adopted by James Joyce and other modernists, combined with a disavowal of the moral finality of traditional story structure. He made no apologies for the difficulties this posed to readers, insisting that the role of an artist was to ask questions, not to answer them.

Biography

Childhood

in the late 19th century. The cross on top is no longer present.]] , hat and bow-tie]] at Yalta, 1900]] , 1901, on honeymoon]]

Anton Chekhov was born on 29 January 1860, the third of six surviving children, in Taganrog, a port on the Sea of Azov in southern Russia where his father, Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov, the son of a former serf, ran a grocery store. A director of the parish choir, devout Orthodox Christian, and physically abusive father, Pavel Chekhov has been seen by some historians as the model for his son's many portraits of hypocrisy. Chekhov's mother, Yevgeniya, was an excellent storyteller who entertained the children with tales of her travels with her cloth-merchant father all over Russia. "Our talents we got from our father," Chekhov remembered, "but our soul from our mother." In adulthood, Chekhov criticised his brother Alexander's treatment of his wife and children by reminding him of Pavel's tyranny:

Chekhov attended a school for Greek boys, followed by the Taganrog gymnasium, now renamed the Chekhov Gymnasium, where he was kept down for a year at fifteen for failing a Greek exam. He sang at the Greek Orthodox monastery in Taganrog and in his father's choirs. In a letter of 1892, he used the word "suffering" to describe his childhood and recalled:

In 1876, Chekhov's father was declared bankrupt after over-extending his finances building a new house, and to avoid the debtor's prison fled to Moscow, where his two eldest sons, Alexander and Nikolai, were attending university. The family lived in poverty in Moscow, Chekhov's mother physically and emotionally broken. Chekhov was left behind to sell the family possessions and finish his education.

Chekhov remained in Taganrog for three more years, boarding with a man called Selivanov who, like Lopakhin in The Cherry Orchard, had bailed out the family for the price of their house. Chekhov had to pay for his own education, which he managed by—among other jobs—private tutoring, catching and selling goldfinches, and selling short sketches to the newspapers. He sent every ruble he could spare to Moscow, along with humorous letters to cheer up the family. and he wrote a full-length comedy drama, Fatherless, which his brother Alexander dismissed as "an inexcusable though innocent fabrication." Chekhov also enjoyed a series of love affairs, one with the wife of a teacher.

Early writings

Chekhov now assumed responsibility for the whole family. To support them and to pay his tuition fees, he wrote daily short, humorous sketches and vignettes of contemporary Russian life, many under pseudonyms such as "Antosha Chekhonte" (Антоша Чехонте) and "Man without a Spleen" (Человек без селезенки). His prodigious output gradually earned him a reputation as a satirical chronicler of Russian street life, and by 1882 he was writing for Oskolki (Fragments), owned by Nikolay Leykin, one of the leading publishers of the time. Chekhov's tone at this stage was harsher than that familiar from his mature fiction.

In 1884, Chekhov qualified as a physician, which he considered his principal profession though he made little money from it and treated the poor for free. In 1884 and 1885, Chekhov found himself coughing blood, and in 1886 the attacks worsened; but he would not admit tuberculosis to his family and friends, He continued writing for weekly periodicals, earning enough money to move the family into progressively better accommodation. Early in 1886 he was invited to write for one of the most popular papers in St. Petersburg, Novoye Vremya (New Times), owned and edited by the millionaire magnate Alexey Suvorin, who paid per line a rate double Leikin's and allowed him three times the space. Suvorin was to become a lifelong friend, perhaps Chekhov's closest.

Before long, Chekhov was attracting literary as well as popular attention. The sixty-four-year-old Dmitry Grigorovich, a celebrated Russian writer of the day, wrote to Chekhov after reading his short story The Huntsman, "You have real talent—a talent which places you in the front rank among writers in the new generation." He went on to advise Chekhov to slow down, write less, and concentrate on literary quality.

Chekhov replied that the letter had struck him "like a thunderbolt" and confessed, "I have written my stories the way reporters write up their notes about fires—mechanically, half-consciously, caring nothing about either the reader or myself." The admission may have done Chekhov a disservice, since early manuscripts reveal that he often wrote with extreme care, continually revising. Grigorovich's advice nevertheless inspired a more serious, artistic ambition in the twenty-six-year-old. In 1887, with a little string-pulling by Grigorovich, the short story collection At Dusk (V Sumerkakh) won Chekhov the coveted Pushkin Prize "for the best literary production distinguished by high artistic worth."

Turning points

That year, exhausted from overwork and ill health, Chekhov took a trip to Ukraine which reawakened him to the beauty of the steppe. On his return, he began the novella-length short story , "something rather odd and much too original," eventually published in Severny Vestnik (The Northern Herald). In a narrative which drifts with the thought processes of the characters, Chekhov evokes a chaise journey across the steppe through the eyes of a young boy sent to live away from home, his companions a priest and a merchant. The Steppe, which has been called a "dictionary of Chekhov's poetics", represented a significant advance for Chekhov, exhibiting much of the quality of his mature fiction and winning him publication in a literary journal rather than a newspaper.

In autumn 1887, a theater manager named Korsh commissioned Chekhov to write a play, the result being Ivanov, written in a fortnight and produced that November. Though Chekhov found the experience "sickening", and painted a comic portrait of the chaotic production in a letter to his brother Alexander, the play was a hit and was praised, to Chekhov's bemusement, as a work of originality. Mikhail Chekhov considered Ivanov a key moment in his brother's intellectual development and literary career.

The death of Chekhov's brother Nikolai from tuberculosis in 1889 influenced A Dreary Story, finished that September, about a man who confronts the end of a life which he realizes has been without purpose. Mikhail Chekhov, who recorded his brother's depression and restlessness after Nikolai's death, was researching prisons at the time as part of his law studies, and Anton Chekhov, in a search for purpose in his own life, himself soon became obsessed with the issue of prison reform. His remarks to his sister about Tomsk were to become notorious.

The inhabitants of Tomsk later retaliated by erecting a mocking statue of Chekhov.

What Chekhov witnessed on Sakhalin shocked and angered him, including floggings, embezzlement of supplies, and forced prostitution of women, he wrote, "There were times I felt that I saw before me the extreme limits of man's degradation." He was particularly moved by the plight of the children living in the penal colony with their parents. For example:

Chekhov later concluded that charity and subscription were not the answer, but that the government had a duty to finance humane treatment of the convicts. His findings were published in 1893 and 1894 as Ostrov Sakhalin (The Island of Sakhalin), a work of social science – not literature – worthy and informative rather than brilliant. Chekhov found literary expression for the "Hell of Sakhalin" in his long short story , the last section of which is set on Sakhalin, where the murderer Yakov loads coal in the night, longing for home.

Melikhovo

In 1892, Chekhov bought the small country estate of Melikhovo, about forty miles south of Moscow, where he lived until 1899 with his family. "It's nice to be a lord," he joked to his friend Ivan Leontyev (who wrote humorous pieces under the pseudonym Shcheglov),

Mikhail Chekhov, a member of the household at Melikhovo, described the extent of his brother's medical commitments:

Chekhov's expenditure on drugs was considerable, but the greatest cost was making journeys of several hours to visit the sick, which reduced his time for writing. Chekhov's work as a doctor, however, enriched his writing by bringing him into intimate contact with all sections of Russian society: for example, he witnessed at first hand the peasants' unhealthy and cramped living conditions, which he recalled in his short story Peasants. Chekhov visited the upper classes as well, recording in his notebook: "Aristocrats? The same ugly bodies and physical uncleanliness, the same toothless old age and disgusting death, as with market-women."

Chekhov began writing his play The Seagull in 1894, in a lodge he had built in the orchard at Melikhovo. In the two years since moving to the estate, he had refurbished the house, taken up agriculture and horticulture, tended orchard and pond, and planted many trees, which, according to Mikhail, he "looked after… as though they were his children. Like Colonel Vershinin in his Three Sisters, as he looked at them he dreamed of what they would be like in three or four hundred years." But the play so impressed the theatre director Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko that he convinced his colleague Constantin Stanislavski to direct it for the innovative Moscow Art Theatre in 1898. Stanislavski's attention to psychological realism and ensemble playing coaxed the buried subtleties from the text and restored Chekhov's interest in playwriting. The Art Theatre commissioned more plays from Chekhov and the following year staged Uncle Vanya, which Chekhov had completed in 1896.

Yalta

In March 1897 Chekhov suffered a major hemorrhage of the lungs while on a visit to Moscow and, with great difficulty, was persuaded to enter a clinic, where the doctors diagnosed tuberculosis on the upper part of his lungs and ordered a change in his manner of life.

After his father's death in 1898, Chekhov bought a plot of land on the outskirts of Yalta and built a villa there, into which he moved with his mother and sister the following year. Though he planted trees and flowers in Yalta, kept dogs and tame cranes, and received guests such as Leo Tolstoy and Maxim Gorky, Chekhov was always relieved to leave his "hot Siberia" for Moscow or travels abroad. He vowed to move to Taganrog as soon as a water supply was installed there. In Yalta he completed two more plays for the Art Theatre, composing with greater difficulty than in the days when he "wrote serenely, the way I eat pancakes now"; he took a year each over Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchard.

On 25 May 1901 Chekhov married Olga Knipper—quietly, owing to his horror of weddings—a former protegée and sometime lover of Nemirovich-Danchenko whom he had first met at rehearsals for The Seagull. Up to that point, Chekhov, called "Russia's most elusive literary bachelor", had preferred passing liaisons and visits to brothels over commitment; he had once written to Suvorin:

The letter proved prophetic of Chekhov's marital arrangements with Olga: he lived largely at Yalta, she in Moscow, pursuing her acting career. In 1902, Olga suffered a miscarriage; and Donald Rayfield has offered evidence, based on the couple's letters, that conception may have occurred when Chekhov and Olga were apart, although Russian scholars have conclusively refuted that claim. The literary legacy of this long-distance marriage is a correspondence which preserves gems of theatre history, including shared complaints about Stanislavski's directing methods and Chekhov's advice to Olga about performing in his plays.

In Yalta, Chekhov wrote one of his most famous stories, The Lady with the Dog (also called Lady with Lapdog), which depicts what at first seems a casual liaison between a married man and a married woman in Yalta. Neither expects anything lasting from the encounter, but they find themselves drawn back to each other, risking the security of their family lives.

Death

By May 1904, Chekhov was terminally ill with tuberculosis. Mikhail Chekhov recalled that "everyone who saw him secretly thought the end was not far off, but the nearer [he] was to the end, the less he seemed to realise it."

Chekhov's death has become one of "the great set pieces of literary history", retold, embroidered, and fictionalised many times since, notably in the short story Errand by Raymond Carver. In 1908, Olga wrote this account of her husband's last moments:

Chekhov's body was transported to Moscow in a refrigerated railway car for fresh oysters, a detail which offended Gorky. Some of the thousands of mourners followed the funeral procession of a General Keller by mistake, to the accompaniment of a military band. Chekhov was buried next to his father at the Novodevichy Cemetery.

Legacy

A few months before he died, Chekhov told the writer Ivan Bunin he thought people might go on reading him for seven years. "Why seven?" asked Bunin. "Well, seven and a half," Chekhov replied. "That's not bad. I've got six years to live."

Always modest, Chekhov could hardly have imagined the extent of his posthumous reputation. The ovations for The Cherry Orchard in the year of his death showed him how high he had risen in the affection of the Russian public—by then he was second in literary celebrity only to Tolstoy, who outlived him by six years—but after his death, Chekhov's fame soon spread further afield. Constance Garnett's translations won him an English-language readership and the admiration of writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and Katherine Mansfield. The issues surrounding the close similarities between Mansfield's 1910 story The Child Who Was Tired and Chekhov's Sleepy are summarised in William H. New's Reading Mansfield and Metaphors of Reform The Russian critic D.S. Mirsky, who lived in England, explained Chekhov's popularity in that country by his "unusually complete rejection of what we may call the heroic values." In Russia itself, Chekhov's drama fell out of fashion after the revolution but was later adapted to the Soviet agenda, with the character Lopakhin, for example, reinvented as a hero of the new order, taking an axe to the cherry orchard.

One of the first non-Russians to praise Chekhov's plays was George Bernard Shaw, who subtitled his Heartbreak House "A Fantasia in the Russian Manner on English Themes" and noted similarities between the predicament of the British landed class and that of their Russian counterparts as depicted by Chekhov: "the same nice people, the same utter futility."

In America, Chekhov's reputation began its rise slightly later, partly through the influence of Stanislavski's system of acting, with its notion of subtext: "Chekhov often expressed his thought not in speeches," wrote Stanislavski, "but in pauses or between the lines or in replies consisting of a single word… the characters often feel and think things not expressed in the lines they speak." The Group Theatre, in particular, developed the subtextual approach to drama, influencing generations of American playwrights, screenwriters, and actors, including Clifford Odets, Elia Kazan and, in particular, Lee Strasberg. In turn, Strasberg's Actors Studio and the "Method" acting approach influenced many actors, including Marlon Brando and Robert De Niro, though by then the Chekhov tradition may have been distorted by a preoccupation with realism. In 1981, the playwright Tennessee Williams adapted The Seagull as The Notebook of Trigorin.

Despite Chekhov's eminence as a playwright, some writers believe his short stories represent the greater achievement. Raymond Carver, who wrote the short story Errand about Chekhov's death, believed Chekhov the greatest of all short-story writers:

Ernest Hemingway, another writer influenced by Chekhov, was more grudging: "Chekhov wrote about 6 good stories. But he was an amateur writer." And Vladimir Nabokov once complained of Chekhov's "medley of dreadful prosaisms, ready-made epithets, repetitions." But he also declared The Lady with the Dog "one of the greatest stories ever written" and described Chekhov as writing "the way one person relates to another the most important things in his life, slowly and yet without a break, in a slightly subdued voice."

For the writer William Boyd, Chekhov's breakthrough was to abandon what William Gerhardie called the "event plot" for something more "blurred, interrupted, mauled or otherwise tampered with by life."

Virginia Woolf mused on the unique quality of a Chekhov story in The Common Reader (1925):

Bibliography

See also

Alexander Chekhov

Maria Chekhova

Flash fiction

List of short stories by Anton Chekhov

Physician writer

White Dacha, Chekhov's House in Yalta

Gallery

File:Three sisters 001.jpg|English translation of Three Sisters File:Chekhov's Fest.JPG|Chekhov International Theatre Festival poster File:Seagull RSC.jpg|Modern production of The Seagull

References

Sources

Allen, David, Performing Chekhov, Routledge (UK), 2001, ISBN 978-0-415-18934-7

Bartlett, Rosamund, and Anthony Phillips (translators), Chekhov: A Life in Letters, Penguin Books, 2004, ISBN 978-0-14-044922-8

Bartlett, Rosamund, Chekhov: Scenes from a Life, Free Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-7432-3074-2

Benedetti, Jean (editor and translator), Dear Writer, Dear Actress: The Love Letters of Olga Knipper and Anton Chekhov, Methuen Publishing Ltd, 1998 edition, ISBN 978-0-413-72390-1

Benedetti, Jean, Stanislavski: An Introduction, Methuen Drama, 1989 edition, ISBN 978-0-413-50030-4

Chekhov, Anton, About Love and Other Stories, translated by Rosamund Bartlett, Oxford University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-19-280260-6

Chekhov, Anton, The Undiscovered Chekhov: Fifty New Stories, translated by Peter Constantine, Duck Editions, 2001, ISBN 978-0-7156-3106-5

Chekhov, Anton, Easter Week, translated by Michael Henry Heim, engravings by Barry Moser, Shackman Press, 2010

Chekhov, Anton, Forty Stories, translated and with an introduction by Robert Payne, New York, Vintage, 1991 edition, ISBN 978-0-679-73375-1

Chekhov, Anton, Letters of Anton Chekhov to His Family and Friends with Biographical Sketch, translated by Constance Garnett, Macmillan, 1920. Full text at Gutenberg. Retrieved 16 February 2007.

Chekhov, Anton, Note-Book of Anton Chekhov, translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf, B.W. Huebsch, 1921. Full text at Gutenberg. Retrieved 16 February 2007.

Chekhov, Anton, The Other Chekhov, edited by Okla Elliott and Kyle Minor, with story introductions by Pinckney Benedict, Fred Chappell, Christopher Coake, Paul Crenshaw, Dorothy Gambrell, Steven Gillis, Michelle Herman, Jeff Parker, Benjamin Percy, and David R. Slavitt. New American Press, 2008 edition, ISBN 978-0-9729679-8-3

Chekhov, Anton, Seven Short Novels, translated by Barbara Makanowitzky, W.W.Norton & Company, 2003 edition, ISBN 978-0-393-00552-3

Finke, Michael C., Chekhov's 'Steppe': A Metapoetic Journey, an essay in Anton Chekhov Rediscovered, ed Savely Senderovich and Munir Sendich, Michigan Russian Language Journal, 1988, ISBN 9999838855

Finke, Michael C., Seeing Chekhov: Life and Art, Cornell UP, 2005, ISBN 978-0-8014-4315-2

Gerhardie, William, Anton Chekhov, Macdonald, (1923) 1974 edition, ISBN 978-0-356-04609-9

Gorky, Maksim, Alexander Kuprin, and I.A. Bunin, Reminiscences of Anton Chekhov, translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf, B.W.Huebsch, 1921. Read at eldritchpress. Retrieved 16 February 2007.

Gottlieb, Vera, and Paul Allain (eds), The Cambridge Companion to Chekhov, Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-521-58917-8

Jackson, Robert Louis, Dostoevsky in Chekhov's Garden of Eden—'Because of Little Apples', in Dialogues with Dostoevsky, Stanford University Press, 1993, ISBN 978-0-8047-2120-2

Klawans, Harold L., Chekhov's Lie, 1997, ISBN 1-888799-12-9. About the challenges of combining writing with the medical life.

Malcolm, Janet, Reading Chekhov, a Critical Journey, Granta Publications, 2004 edition, ISBN 978-1-86207-635-8

Miles, Patrick (ed), Chekhov on the British Stage, Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 978-0-521-38467-4

Nabokov, Vladimir, Anton Chekhov, in Lectures on Russian Literature, Harvest/HBJ Books, [1981] 2002 edition, ISBN 978-0-15-602776-2.

Pitcher, Harvey, Chekhov's Leading Lady: Portrait of the Actress Olga Knipper, J Murray, 1979, ISBN 978-0-7195-3681-6

Prose, Francine, Learning from Chekhov, in Writers on Writing, ed. Robert Pack and Jay Parini, UPNE, 1991, ISBN 978-0-87451-560-2

Rayfield, Donald, Anton Chekhov: A Life, Henry Holt & Co, 1998, ISBN 978-0-8050-5747-8

Simmons, Ernest J., Chekhov: A Biography, University of Chicago Press, (1962) 1970 edition, ISBN 978-0-226-75805-3

Stanislavski, Constantin, My Life in Art, Methuen Drama, 1980 edition, ISBN 978-0-413-46200-8

Styan, John Louis, Modern Drama in Theory and Practice, Cambridge University Press, 1981, ISBN 978-0-521-29628-1

Wood, James, What Chekhov Meant by Life, in The Broken Estate: Essays in Literature and Belief, Pimlico, 2000 edition, ISBN 978-0-7126-6557-5

Zeiger, Arthur, The Plays of Anton Chekov, Claxton House, Inc., New York, NY, 1945.

External links

Biographical

Biography at books and writers (Petri Liukkonen)

Biography at The Literature Network

"Chekhov's Legacy" by Cornel West at NPR, 2004

The International competition of philological, culture and film studies works dedicated to Anton Chekhov's life and creative work Misc

Campaign to save Chekhov's house in Yalta

Works

Works by and about Anton Chekhov at Internet Archive. Scanned books, color, some illustrated, original editions.

Recorded Stories of Anton Chekhov at Internet Archive. Translated by Constance Garnett, Marion Fell, and others. Presented in mp3 and ogg format.

. All Constance Garnett's translations of the short stories and letters are available, plus the edition of the Note-book translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf – see the "References" section for print publication details of all of these. Site also has translations of all the plays.

201 Stories by Anton Chekhov, translated by Constance Garnett presented in chronological order of Russian publication with annotations.

Works of Anton Chekhov available to read online at ReadmeFree

Антон Павлович Чехов Texts of Chekhov's works in the original Russian. Retrieved 16 February 2007.

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