Roman roads

The Roman roads were a vital part of the development of the Roman state, from about 500 BC through the expansion during the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. Roman roads enabled the Romans to move armies and trade goods and to communicate. The Roman road system spanned more than 400,000 km of roads, including over 80,500 km of paved roads. When Rome reached the height of its power, no fewer than 29 great military highways radiated from the city. In Gaul alone, no less than 21,000 km of road are said to have been improved, and in Britain at least 4,000 km.

The Romans became adept at constructing roads, which they called viae. They were intended for carrying material from one location to another. It was permitted to walk or pass and drive cattle, vehicles, or traffic of any description along the path. The Romans made their roads like walls.

The Roman road networks were important both in maintaining the stability of the empire and for its expansion. The legions made good time on them, and some are still used millennia later. In later antiquity, these roads played an important part in Roman military reverses by offering avenues of invasion to the barbarians.

Etymology

The Romans' roads were called viae (plural of the singular term via) in Latin. The word is related to the English way (Old English weg) and weigh, (OE wegan, "to lift up, carry, bear, move, convey"; cf. "weigh anchor", where the sense is simply "lift up"). These words are all derived from the Indo-European root, *wegh-, which means "to move or convey". Vehicle, from Latin vehere, "to carry, bring, drive", has the same root, as do the English words wain and wagon (the latter word coming from Germanic).

Roman systems

Livy mentions some of the most familiar roads near Rome, and the milestones on them, at times long before the first paved road - the Appian Way. Actual practices varied from this standard. The Tables command Romans to build roads and give wayfarers the right to pass over private land where the road is in disrepair. Building roads that would not need frequent repair therefore became an ideological objective.

Roman law defined the right to use a road as a servitus, or claim. The ius eundi ("right of going") established a claim to use an iter, or footpath, across private land; the ius agendi ("right of driving"), an actus, or carriage track. A via combined both types of servitutes, provided it was of the proper width, which was determined by an arbiter. The default width was the latitudo legitima of 8 ft (2.4 m). In these rather dry laws we can see the prevalence of the public domain over the private, which characterized the republic.

Roman law and tradition forbade the use of vehicles in urban areas, except in certain cases. Married women and government officials on business could ride. The Lex Iulia Municipalis restricted commercial carts to night-time access to the city within the walls and within a mile outside the walls.

Types of roads

Roman roads varied from simple corduroy roads to paved roads using deep roadbeds of tamped rubble as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from between the stones and fragments of rubble, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. According to Ulpian, there were three types of roads: (time unknown). Their authority extended over all roads between their respective gates of issue in the city wall and the first milestone beyond. An earthed road with a graveled surface. #Via munita: A regular built road, paved with rectangular blocks of the stone of the country, or with polygonal blocks of lava.

The Romans, though certainly inheriting some of the art of road construction from the Etruscans, borrowed the knowledge of construction of viae munitae from the Carthaginians according to Isidore of Sevilla. In these roads, the surface was hardened with gravel; and although pavements were introduced shortly afterwards, the blocks were allowed to rest merely on a bed of small stones. An a example of this type is found on the Praenestine Way. Another example is found near the Via Latina.

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Obstacle crossings

Romans preferred to engineer solutions to obstacles rather than circumvent them. Outcroppings of stone, ravines, or hilly or mountainous terrain called for cuttings and tunnels. An example of this is found on the Roman road from Cazanes near the Iron Gates. This road was half carved into the rock, about 5 ft. to 5 ft. 9 in. (1.5 to 1.75 m), the rest of the road, above the Danube, was made from wooden structure, projecting out of the cliff. The road functioned as a towpath, making the Danube navigable. Tabula Traiana memorial plaque in Serbia is only remain of the now submerged road.

Bridges and causeways

Roman bridges, built by ancient Romans, were the first large and lasting bridges built. River crossings were achieved by bridges, or pontes. Single slabs went over rills. A bridge could be of wood, stone, or both. Wooden bridges were constructed on pilings sunk into the river, or on stone piers. Larger or more permanent bridges required arches. These larger bridges were built with stone and had the arch as its basic structure, see arch bridge. Most also used concrete, which the Romans were the first to use for bridges. Roman bridges were so well constructed that many are in use today.

Causeways were built over marshy ground. The road was first marked out with pilings. Between them were sunk large quantities of stone so as to raise the causeway to more than 5 ft. (1.5 m) above the marsh. In the provinces, the Romans often did not bother with a stone causeway, but used log roads (pontes longi).

Military and citizen utilisation

The public road system of the Romans was thoroughly military in its aims and spirit. |}

The Romans had a preference for standardization whenever they could, so Augustus, after becoming permanent commissioner of roads in 20 BC, set up the miliarium aureum (golden milestone) near the temple of Saturn. All roads were considered to begin from this gilded bronze monument. On it were listed all the major cities in the empire and distances to them. Constantine called it the umbilicus Romae (navel of Rome), and built a similar — although more complex — monument in Constantinople, the Milion.

Milestones permitted distances and locations to be known and recorded exactly. It was not long before historians began to refer to the milestone at which an event occurred.

Itinerary maps and charts

The construction of some visible representation of this huge network of communications was a practical necessity. They may have existed as specialty items in some of the libraries, but they were hard to copy and were not in general use. On the Roman road system, however, the traveller needed some idea of where he was going, how to get there, and how long it would take. The itinerarium filled this need.

The Romans and ancient travelers in general did not use maps. They may have existed as specialty items in some of the libraries, but they were hard to copy and were not in general use. On the Roman road system, however, the traveller needed some idea of where he was going, how to get there, and how long it would take. The itinerarium filled this need. In origin it was simply a list of cities along a road: "at their most basic, itineraria involve the transposition of information given on milestones, which were an integral feature of the majorRoman roads, to a written script." It was only a short step from lists to a master list. To sort out the lists, the Romans drew diagrams of parallel lines showing the branches of the roads. Parts of these were copied and sold on the streets. The very best featured symbols for cities, way stations, water courses, and so on. The maps did not represent landforms but they served the purpose of a simple schematic diagram for the user.

The Roman government from time to time undertook to produce a master itinerary of all Roman roads. Julius Caesar and Mark Antonycommissioned the first known such effort in 44 BC. Zenodoxus, Theodotus and Polyclitus, three Greek geographers, were hired to survey the system and compile a master itinerary. This task required over 25 years. The result was a stone engraved master itinerarium set up near thePantheon, from which travelers and itinerary sellers could make copies.

Vehicles and transportation

(reconstruction)]] Outside the cities, Romans were avid riders and rode on or drove quite a number of vehicle types, some of which are mentioned here. Carts driven by oxen were used. Horse drawn carts could travel up to 40 to 50 km (25 to 30 miles) per day, pedestrians 20 to 25 km (12 to 15 miles). For purposes of description, Roman vehicles can be divided into the car, the coach and the cart. Cars were used to transport one or two individuals, coaches were used to transport parties, and carts to transport cargo.

Of the cars, the most popular was the carrus ("car"), a standard chariot form descending to the Romans from a greater antiquity. The top was open, the front closed. One survives in the Vatican. It carried a driver and a passenger. A carrus of two horses was a biga; of three horses, a triga; and of four horses a quadriga. The tires were of iron. When not in use, its wheels were removed for easier storage.

A more luxurious version, the carpentum, transported women and officials. It had an arched overhead covering of cloth and was drawn by mules. A lighter version, the cisium, equivalent to a gig, was open above and in front and had a seat. Drawn by one or two mules or horses, it was used for cab work, the cab drivers being called cisiani. The builder was a cisarius.

Of the coaches, the mainstay was the raeda or reda, which had 4 wheels. The high sides formed a sort of box in which seats were placed, with a notch on each side for entry. It carried several people with baggage up to the legal limit of 1000 Roman Libra (pounds), modern equivalent 327 kg. It was drawn by teams of oxen, horses or mules. A cloth top could be put on for weather, in which case it resembled a covered wagon.

The raeda was probably the main vehicle for travel on the roads. Raedae meritoriae were hired coaches. The fiscalis raeda was a government coach. The driver and the builder were both referred to as a raedarius.

Of the carts, the main one was the plaustrum or plostrum. This was simply a platform of boards attached to wheels and a cross-tree. The wheels, or tympana, were solid and were several centimetres (inches) thick. The sides could be built up with boards or rails. A large wicker basket was sometimes placed on it. A two-wheel version existed along with the normal 4-wheel type called the plaustrum maius.

The military used a standard wagon. Their transportation service was the cursus clabularis, after the standard wagon, called a carrus clabularius, clabularis, clavularis, or clabulare. It transported the impedimenta, or baggage of a military column.

Way stations and traveler inns

Non-military officials and people on official business had no legion at their service and the government maintained way stations, or mansiones ("staying places"), for their use. Passports were required for identification. Mansiones were located about 15 to 18 miles (25 to 30 km) apart from the next one. There the official traveller found a complete villa dedicated to his use. Often a permanent military camp or a town grew up around the mansio. For non-official travelers in need of refreshment, a private system of 'inns' or cauponae were placed near the mansiones. They performed the same functions but were somewhat disreputable, as they were frequented by thieves and prostitutes. Graffiti decorate the walls of the few whose ruins have been found.

Genteel travelers needed something better than cauponae. In the early days of the viae, when little unofficial provision existed, houses placed near the road were required by law to offer hospitality on demand. Frequented houses no doubt became the first tabernae, which were hostels, rather than the "taverns" we know today. As Rome grew, so did its tabernae, becoming more luxurious and acquiring good or bad reputations as the case may be. One of the best hotels was the Tabernae Caediciae at Sinuessa on the Via Appia. It had a large storage room containing barrels of wine, cheese and ham. Many cities of today grew up around a taberna complex, such as Rheinzabern in the Rhineland, and Saverne in Alsace.

A third system of way stations serviced vehicles and animals: the mutationes ("changing stations"). They were located every 20 to 30 km (12 to 18 miles). In these complexes, the driver could purchase the services of wheelwrights, cartwrights, and equarii medici, or veterinarians. Using these stations in chariot relays, the emperor Tiberius hastened 800 km (500 miles) in 24 hours to join his brother, Drusus Germanicus, who was dying of gangrene as a result of a fall from a horse.

Post offices and services

Two postal services were available under the empire, one public and one private. The Cursus publicus, founded by Augustus, carried the mail of officials by relay throughout the Roman road system. The vehicle for carrying mail was a cisium with a box, but for special delivery, a horse and rider was faster. A relay of horses could carry a letter 800 km in 24 hours. The postman wore a characteristic leather hat, the petanus. The postal service was a somewhat dangerous occupation, as postmen were a target for bandits and enemies of Rome. Private mail of the well-to-do was carried by tabellarii, an organization of slaves available for a price.

Locations

(ruled 117-38 AD), showing the network of main Roman roads.]]

There are many examples of roads that still follow the route of Roman roads.

Italian areas

;Major roads

Via Aemilia, from Ariminum to Placentia

Via Appia, the Appian way (312 BC), from Rome to Apulia

Via Aurelia (241 BC), from Rome to France

Via Cassia, from Rome to Tuscany

Via Flaminia (220 BC), from Rome to Rimini (Ariminum)

Via Salaria, from Rome to the Adriatic Sea (in the Marches)

;Others

Via Aemilia Scaura (109 BC)

Via Aquillia, branches off the Appia at Capua to the sea at Vibo

Via Amerina, from Rome to Ameria and Perusia

Via Canalis, from Udine, Gemona and Val Canale to Villach in Carinthia and then over Alps to Salzburg or Vienna

Via Claudia Julia Augusta (13 BC)

Via Claudia Nova (47 AD)

Via Clodia, from Rome to Tuscany forming a system with the Cassia

Via Domitiana, coast road from Naples to Formia

Via Flavia, from Trieste (Tergeste) to Dalmatia

Via Gemina, from Aquileia and Trieste through the Karst to Materija, Obrov, Lipa and Klana, from where, near Rijeka, descending towards Trsat (Tersatica) to continue along the Dalmatian coast

Via Julia Augusta (8 BC), exits Aquileia

Via Labicana, southeast from Rome, forming a system with the Praenestina

Via Ostiensis, from Rome to Ostia

Via Postumia (148), from Verona across the Apennines to Genoa

Via Popilia (132 BC), two distinct roads, one from Capua to Rhegium and the other from Ariminum through the later Veneto region

Via Praenestina, from Rome to Praeneste

Via Schlavonia, from Aquileia across northern Istria to Senj and into Dalmatia

Via Severiana, Terracina to Ostia

Via Tiburtina, from Rome to Aternum

Via Traiana Nova (Italy), from Lake Bolsena to the Via Cassia. Known by archaeology only

Other areas

;Africa

Main road: from Sala Colonia to Carthage to Alexandria.

In Egypt: Via Hadriana

In Mauretania Tingitana from Tingis southward (see: Roman roads in Morocco)

presumed to be of Roman origin (the rectangular blocks are not true Roman construction) ]] ;Albania / Republic of Macedonia / Greece / Turkey

Via Egnatia (146 BC) connecting Dyrrhachium (on Adriatic Sea) to Byzantium via Thessaloniki

;Austria / Serbia / Bulgaria / Turkey

Via Militaris (Via Diagonalis, Via Singidunum), connecting Middle Europe and Byzantium

Roman road in Cilicia in south Turkey

;France In France, a Roman road is called voie romaine in vernacular language.

Via Agrippa

Via Aquitania, from Narbonne, where it connected to the Via Domitia, to the Atlantic Ocean across Toulouse and Bordeaux

Via Domitia (118 BC), from Nîmes to the Pyrenees, where it joins to the Via Augusta at the Col de Panissars

Voie romaine, extending from Dunkirk to Cassel in Nord Département

;Germania Inferior (Germany, Belgium, Netherlands)

Via Belgica (Boulogne-Cologne)

Lower Limes Germanicus

Interconnections between Lower Limes Germanicus and Via Belgica

;Middle East

Petra Roman Road First Century Petra, Jordan

;Romania

Trajan's bridge and Iron Gates road.

Via Traiana — Porolissum Napoca Potaissa Apulum road.

Via Pontica - Troesmis Piroboridava Caput Stenarum Apulum Partiscum Lugio

;Romania / Bulgaria

Via Pontica

, or Roman Iberia]] ;Spain and Portugal

Iter ab Emerita Asturicam, from Sevilla to Gijón. Later known as Vía de la Plata (plata means "silver" in Spanish, but in this case it is a false cognate of an Arabic word balata), part of the fan of the Way of Saint James. Now it is the A-66 freeway.

Via Augusta, from Cádiz to the Pyrénées, where it joins to the Via Domitia at the Coll de Panissars, near La Jonquera. It passes through Valencia, Tarragona (anciently Tarraco), and Barcelona.

Camiño de Oro, ending in Ourense, capital of the Province of Ourense, passing near the village of Reboledo.

;Trans-Alpine roads These roads connected modern Italy and Germany

Via Claudia Augusta (47) from Altinum (now Quarto d'Altino) to Augsburg via the Reschen Pass

Via Mala from Milan to Lindau via the San Bernardino Pass

Via Decia

;Trans-Pyrenean roads Connecting Hispania and Gallia:

Ab Asturica Burdigalam

in the English Lake District, named after the Roman road which runs over the summit, is the highest Roman road in Britain]] ;United Kingdom

Akeman Street

Camlet Way

Dere Street

Ermine Street

Fen Causeway

Fosse Way

King Street

London-West of England Roman Roads

Peddars Way

Pye Road

Stane Street

Stanegate

Via Devana

Watling Street

References

;General information

Laurence, Ray (1999). The roads of Roman Italy: mobility and cultural change. Routledge.

Von Hagen, Victor W. (1967), The Roads That Led To Rome. The World Publishing Company, Cleveland and New York.

Codrington, Thomas (1905). Roman Roads in Britain. London [etc.]: Society for promoting Christian knowledge.

Forbes, Urquhart A., and Arnold C. Burmester (1904). Our Roman Highways. London: F.E. Robinson & co.

Roby, Henry John (1902). Roman Private Law in the Times of Cicero and of the Antonines. Cambridge: C.U.P.

Smith, William, William Wayte, and G. E. Marindin (1890). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: J. Murray. Page 946 - 954.

Smith, William (1858). A School Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities; Abridged from the Larger Dictionary by William Smith, with Corrections and Improvements by Charles Anthon. N.Y.: [s.n.]. Page 3543 - 355

Cresy, Edward (1847). An Encyclopædia of Civil Engineering, Historical, Theoretical, and Practical. London: printed for Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, Paternoster-Row.

;Footnotes

;Sources

Siculus Flaccus, 'De condicionibus agrorum' cap. XIX

Isidori Hispalensis Episcopi Etymologiarum sive Originum Liber XV, 15-16

Codex Theodosianus:

* 8.5 De cursu publico angariis et parangariis;

* 15.3 De itinere muniendo

Corpus Iuris Civilis

* C.12.50 De cursu publico angariis et parangariis

* D.8.3.0 De servitutibus praediorum rusticorum.

* D.8.6.2

* D.43.7 De locis et itineribus publicis

* D.43.8 Ne quid in loco publico vel itinere fiat.

* D.43.10 De via publica et si quid in ea factum esse dicatur.

* D.43.11 De via publica et itinere publico reficiendo.

* D.43.19 De itinere actuque privato.

External links

;General articles

Roman Roads

Omnes Viae: Roman route planner based on Tabula Peutingeriana

Viae Romanae

Road Map

Viae - Article by William Ramsay

Traianus: Technical investigation of Roman public works

;Road descriptions

Roman Roads in the Mediterranean

Vias Romanas em Portugal (in Portuguese)

Itineraires Romains en France (in French)

Augustine's Africa

Pictures of Roman roads in the province of Raetia (German captions)

;Roman law regarding public and private domain

Servitutes

;Road construction

Roman Road Construction

Construction of Roman Roads

Design and Construction of Roman Roads

Roman Road Construction

Category:Lists of roads Category:Types of roads Category:Roman Inventions