In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline. pH measurements are important in medicine, biology, chemistry, agriculture, forestry, food science, environmental science, oceanography, civil engineering and many other applications.

In a solution pH approximates but is not equal to p[H], the negative logarithm (base 10) of the molar concentration of dissolved hydronium ions (); a low pH indicates a high concentration of hydronium ions, while a high pH indicates a low concentration. This negative of the logarithm matches the number of places behind the decimal point, so, for example, 0.1 molar hydrochloric acid should be near pH 1 and 0.0001 molar HCl should be near pH 4 (the base 10 logarithms of 0.1 and 0.0001 being −1, and −4, respectively). Pure (de-ionized) water is neutral, and can be considered either a very weak acid or a very weak base (center of the 0 to 14 pH scale), giving it a pH of 7 (at ), or 0.0000001 M H⁺. For an aqueous solution to have a higher pH, a base must be dissolved in it, which binds away many of these rare hydrogen ions. Hydrogen ions in water can be written simply as H⁺ or as hydronium (H₃O⁺) or higher species (e.g., H₉O₄⁺) to account for solvation, but all describe the same entity. Most of the Earth's freshwater bodies surface are slightly acidic due to the abundance and absorption of carbon dioxide; in fact, for millennia in the past, most fresh water bodies have long existed at a slightly acidic pH level.

However, pH is not precisely p[H], but takes into account an activity factor. This represents the tendency of hydrogen ions to interact with other components of the solution, which affects among other things the electrical potential read using a pH meter. As a result, pH can be affected by the ionic strength of a solution – for example, the pH of a 0.05 M potassium hydrogen phthalate solution can vary by as much as 0.5 pH units as a function of added potassium chloride, even though the added salt is neither acidic nor basic.

Hydrogen ion activity coefficients cannot be measured directly by any thermodynamically sound method, so they are based on theoretical calculations. Therefore, the pH scale is defined in practice as traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement. Primary pH standard values are determined by the Harned cell, a hydrogen gas electrode, using the Bates–Guggenheim Convention.

pH in its usual meaning is a measure of acidity of (dilute) aqueous solutions only. has been developed on the basis of the absolute chemical potential of the proton. This concept proposes the "Unified pH" as a measure of acidity that is applicable to any medium: liquids, gases and even solids.

History

The concept of p[H] was first introduced by Danish chemist Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen at the Carlsberg Laboratory in 1909 and revised to the modern pH in 1924 after it became apparent that electromotive force in cells depends on activity rather than concentration of hydrogen ions.

It is unknown what the exact definition of 'p' in pH is. A common definition often used in schools is "percentage". However some references suggest the p stands for “Power�, others refer to the German word “Potenz� (meaning power in German), still others refer to “potential�. Jens Norby published a paper in 2000 arguing that p is a constant and stands for “negative logarithm�; H then stands for Hydrogen. According to the Carlsberg Foundation pH stands for "power of hydrogen".

Definitions

Mathematical definition

pH is defined as a negative decimal logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity in a solution.

:$\backslash mathrm\{pH\}\; =\; -\; \backslash log\_\{10\}(a\_\{\backslash textrm\{H\}^+\})\; =\; \backslash log\_\{10\}\backslash left(\backslash frac\{1\}\{a\_\{\backslash textrm\{H\}^+\}\}\backslash right)$

where a_H+ is the activity of hydrogen ions in units of mol/L (molar concentration). Activity has a sense of concentration, however activity is always less than the concentration and is defined as a concentration (mol/L) of an ion multiplied by activity coefficient. The activity coefficient for diluted solutions is a real number between 0 and 1 (for concentrated solutions may be greater than 1) and it depends on many parameters of a solution, such as nature of ion, ion force, temperature, etc. For a strong electrolyte, activity of an ion approaches its concentration in diluted solutions. Activity can be measured experimentally by means of an ion-selective electrode that responds, according to the Nernst equation, to hydrogen ion activity. pH is commonly measured by means of a glass electrode connected to a milli-voltmeter with very high input impedance, which measures the potential difference, or electromotive force, E, between an electrode sensitive to the hydrogen ion activity and a reference electrode, such as a calomel electrode or a silver chloride electrode. Quite often, glass electrode is combined with the reference electrode and a temperature sensor in one body. The glass electrode can be described (to 95–99.9% accuracy) by the Nernst equation:

:$E\; =\; E^0\; +\; \backslash frac\{RT\}\{nF\}\; \backslash ln(a\_\{\backslash textrm\{H\}^+\});\; \backslash qquad\; \backslash mathrm\{pH\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{E^0-E\}\{2.303\; RT/F\}$

where E is a measured potential , E⁰ is the standard electrode potential, that is, the electrode potential for the standard state in which the activity is one. R is the gas constant, T is the temperature in kelvins, F is the Faraday constant, and n is the number of electrons transferred (ion charge), one in this instance. The electrode potential, E, is proportional to the logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity.

This definition, by itself, is wholly impractical, because the hydrogen ion activity is the product of the concentration and an activity coefficient. To get proper results, the electrode must be calibrated using standard solutions of known activity.

The operational definition of pH is officially defined by International Standard ISO 31-8 as follows: For a solution X, first measure the electromotive force E_X of the galvanic cell :reference electrode|concentrated solution of KCl || solution X|H₂|Pt and then also measure the electromotive force E_S of a galvanic cell that differs from the above one only by the replacement of the solution X of unknown pH, pH(X), by a solution S of a known standard pH, pH(S). The pH of X is then

:$\backslash text\{pH(X)\}\; -\; \backslash text\{pH(S)\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{E\_\backslash text\{S\}\; -\; E\_\backslash text\{X\}\; \}\{2.303RT/F\}$

The difference between the pH of solution X and the pH of the standard solution depends only on the difference between two measured potentials. Thus, pH is obtained from a potential measured with an electrode calibrated against one or more pH standards; a pH meter setting is adjusted such that the meter reading for a solution of a standard is equal to the value pH(S). Values pH(S) for a range of standard solutions S, along with further details, are given in the IUPAC recommendations. The standard solutions are often described as standard buffer solution. In practice, it is better to use two or more standard buffers to allow for small deviations from Nernst-law ideality in real electrodes. Note that, because the temperature occurs in the defining equations, the pH of a solution is temperature-dependent.

Measurement of extremely low pH values, such as some very acidic mine waters, requires special procedures. Calibration of the electrode in such cases can be done with standard solutions of concentrated sulfuric acid, whose pH values can be calculated with using Pitzer parameters to calculate activity coefficients.

pH is an example of an acidity function. Hydrogen ion concentrations can be measured in non-aqueous solvents, but this leads, in effect, to a different acidity function, because the standard state for a non-aqueous solvent is different from the standard state for water. Superacids are a class of non-aqueous acids for which the Hammett acidity function, H₀, has been developed.

p[H]

This was the original definition of Sørensen, The calibration yieds a value for the standard electrode potential, E⁰, and a slope factor, f, so that the Nernst equation in the form :$E\; =\; E^0\; +\; f\backslash frac\{RT\}\{nF\}\; \backslash ln[\backslash mbox\{H\}^+]$ can be used to derive hydrogen ion concentrations from experimental measurements of E. The slope factor is usually slightly less than one. A slope factor of less than 0.95 indicates that the electrode is not functioning correctly. The presence of background electrolyte ensures that the hydrogen ion activity coefficient is effectively constant during the titration. As it is constant, its value can be set to one by defining the standard state as being the solution containing the background electrolyte. Thus, the effect of using this procedure is to make activity equal to the numerical value of concentration.

The difference between p[H] and pH is quite small. It has been stated that pH = p[H] + 0.04. It is common practice to use the term "pH" for both types of measurement.

pOH

pOH is sometimes used as a measure of the concentration of hydroxide ions, OH^−, or alkalinity. pOH is not measured independently, but is derived from pH. The concentration of hydroxide ions in water is related to the concentration of hydrogen ions by

:[OH^−] = K_W /[H⁺]

where K_W is the self-ionisation constant of water. Taking cologarithms

:pOH = pK_W − pH.

So, at room temperature pOH ≈ 14 − pH. However this relationship is not strictly valid in other circumstances, such as in measurements of soil alkalinity.

Applications

Pure (neutral) water has a pH around 7 at ; this value varies with temperature. When an acid is dissolved in water, the pH will be less than 7 (if at ). When a base, or alkali, is dissolved in water, the pH will be greater than 7 (if at ). A solution of a strong acid, such as hydrochloric acid, at concentration 1 mol/L has a pH of 0. A solution of a strong alkali, such as sodium hydroxide, at concentration 1 mol/L, has a pH of 14. Thus, measured pH values will lie mostly in the range 0 to 14. Since pH is a logarithmic scale, a difference of one pH unit is equivalent to a tenfold difference in hydrogen ion concentration.

Because the glass electrode (and other ion selective electrodes) responds to activity, the electrode should be calibrated in a medium similar to the one being investigated. For instance, if one wishes to measure the pH of a seawater sample, the electrode should be calibrated in a solution resembling seawater in its chemical composition, as detailed below.

An approximate measure of pH may be obtained by using a pH indicator. A pH indicator is a substance that changes color around a particular pH value. It is a weak acid or weak base and the color change occurs around 1 pH unit either side of its acid dissociation constant, or pK_a, value. For example, the naturally occurring indicator litmus is red in acidic solutions (pH<7 at ) and blue in alkaline (pH>7 at ) solutions. Universal indicator consists of a mixture of indicators such that there is a continuous color change from about pH 2 to pH 10. Universal indicator paper is simple paper that has been impregnated with universal indicator.

A solution whose pH is 7 (at ) is said to be neutral, that is, it is neither acidic nor basic. Water is subject to a self-ionization process. :H₂O H⁺ + OH^− The dissociation constant, K_W, has a value of about 10^−14, so, in neutral solution of a salt, both the hydrogen ion concentration and hydroxide ion concentration are about 10^−7 mol dm^−3. The pH of pure water decreases with increasing temperatures. For example, the pH of pure water at 50 °C is 6.55. Note, however, that water that has been exposed to air is mildly acidic. This is because water absorbs carbon dioxide from the air, which is then slowly converted into carbonic acid, which dissociates to liberate hydrogen ions: :CO₂ + H₂O  H₂CO₃  HCO₃^− + H⁺

Examples

{| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Substance !! pH |- | Lead-battery acid || |- | Vinegar || 2.0 |- | Baking soda

For example, for a 0.01M solution of HCl, the H⁺ concentration can be taken as 0.01M, and the pH is −log(0.01). That is, pH = 2.

For very weak concentrations, i.e. concentrations around 10^−6M or less, the baseline concentration of H⁺ ions in pure water becomes significant, and must be taken into account. A method of solution is as follows. At equilibrium, any aqueous solution must satisfy the dissociation equilibrium equation for water,

:$[H^+][OH^-]\; =\; K\_w\; =\; 10^\{-14\}$

Another constraint is that the nominal concentration of the acid must be preserved. The nominal concentration is designated C_a, and is equivalent to the amount of acid that is initially added to the reaction. This is known as the mass balance equation, and can be written,

:$C\_a\; =\; [HA]\; +\; [A^-]$

Where "HA" refers to the protonated form of the acid, and "A^–" to the conjugate base anion.

Note that for a given reaction, C_a is constant. This equation is merely saying that the molecules of acid can either be protonated or ionized, but that the total number will stay the same.

For a strong acid which is completely dissociated, [A^–] >> [HA], and the [HA] term can be dropped:

:$C\_a\; =\; [A^-]$

Another relationship that must be satisfied is known as the electroneutrality principle, or the charge balance equation, and is the statement that the total charge of the solution must be zero. So the sum of all the negative ion charges must equal the sum of the positive ion charges. This can be written,

:$[H^+]\; =\; [A^-]\; +\; [OH^-]$

For a strong acid, one can use C_a in place of [A^–], and eliminate [OH^–] from this equation by substituting the value derived from the equilibrium equation for water, [OH^–] = K_w / [H⁺]. Thus,

:$[H^+]\; =\; C\_a\; +\; \backslash frac\{K\_w\}\{[H^+]\}$

Putting this into the form of a quadratic equation,

:$[H^+]^2\; -\; C\_a[H^+]\; -\; K\_w\; =\; 0$

Which is readily solved for [H⁺].

For example, to find the pH of a solution of 5×10^−8M of HCl, first note that this concentration is small compared to the baseline concentration of [H⁺] in water (10^−7). So the quadratic equation derived above should be used.

:$[H^+]^2\; -\; 5\; \backslash times\; 10^\{-8\}\; [H^+]\; -\; 10^\{-14\}\; =\; 0$

:$[H^+]\; =\; 1.28\; \backslash times\; 10^\{-7\}$

:$pH\; =\; 6.89$

Weak acids and bases

The problem in this case would be to determine the pH of a solution of a specific concentration of an acid, when that acid's pK_a or K_a (acid dissociation constant) is given.

In this case, the acid is not completely dissociated, but the degree of dissociation is given by the equilibrium equation for that acid:

:$K\_a\; =\; \backslash frac\{[H^+][A^-]\}\{[HA]\}$

The mass balance and charge balance equations can be applied here as well, but in the case of a weak acid, the acid is not completely dissociated, and thus the assumption [A^–] >> [HA] is not valid. Therefore the mass balance equation is

:$C\_a\; =\; [HA]\; +\; [A^-]$

Unless the acid is very weak, or the concentration is very dilute, it is reasonable to assume that the concentration of [H⁺] is much greater than the concentration of [OH^–]. This assumption simplifies the calculation and can be verified after the result is found. Note that this is equivalent to the assumption that the pH value is lower than about 6. With this assumption, the charge balance equation is

:$[H^+]\; =\; [A^-]$

There are three equations with three unknowns ([H⁺], [A^–], and [HA]), which need to be solved for [H⁺]. The mass balance equation allows to solve for [HA] in terms of [H⁺]:

:$[HA]\; =\; C\_a\; -\; [A^-]\; =\; C\_a\; -\; [H^+]$

And then plug these into the equilibrium equation for the acid

:$K\_a\; =\; \backslash frac\{[H^+]^2\}\{C\_a\; -\; [H^+]\}$

Rearrange this to put it in the form of a quadratic equation,

:$[H^+]^2\; +\; K\_a[H^+]\; -\; K\_a\; C\_a\; =\; 0$

The ICE table allows to evaluate the differences in concentrations before and after the reaction – basically, it is a mnemonic device for implementing the mass balance and charge balance equations for a given reaction, by accounting for the movements of the acid molecules and the charges. The equation derived by using the ICE table is the same as the quadratic equation given above.

For example, consider a problem of finding the pH of a 0.01M solution of benzoic acid, given that, for this acid, K_a = 6.5×10^−5 (pK_a = 4.19).

The equilibrium equation for this reaction is

:$6.5\; \backslash times\; 10^\{-5\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{[H^+][A^-]\}\{[HA]\}$

One can neglect the [OH^–] concentration, hoping that the final answer will by pH < 6. Then [H⁺] = [A^–], and the equilibrium equation becomes

:$6.5\; \backslash times\; 10^\{-5\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{[H^+]^2\}\{[HA]\}$

The mass balance equation is

:$0.01M\; =\; [HA]\; +\; [A^-]\; =\; [HA]\; +\; [H^+]$

Solving for [HA] yields

:$[HA]\; =\; 0.01M\; -\; [H^+]$

and plugging that into the equilbrium equation, results in the quadratic equation

:$6.5\; \backslash times\; 10^\{-5\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{[H^+]^2\}\{0.01\; -\; [H^+]\}$

:$[H^+]^2\; +\; 6.5\; \backslash times\; 10^\{-5\}[H^+]\; -\; 6.5\; \backslash times\; 10^\{-5\}\; \backslash times\; 0.01\; =\; 0$

Which gives the answer

:$[H^+]\; =\; 7.74\; \backslash times\; 10^\{-4\}$

:$pH\; =\; -\backslash log\; [H^+]\; =\; 3.11$

Thus the assumption that pH < 6 was valid, and the [OH^–] concentration might well be ignored.

pH in nature

blossoms are either pink or blue, depending on a pH-dependent mobilization and uptake of soil aluminium into the plants.]]

pH-dependent plant pigments that can be used as pH indicators occur in many plants, including hibiscus, marigold, red cabbage (anthocyanin), and red wine.

Seawater

The pH of seawater plays an important role in the ocean's carbon cycle, and there is evidence of ongoing ocean acidification caused by carbon dioxide emissions. However, pH measurement is complicated by the chemical properties of seawater, and several distinct pH scales exist in chemical oceanography.

As part of its operational definition of the pH scale, the IUPAC defines a series of buffer solutions across a range of pH values (often denoted with NBS or NIST designation). These solutions have a relatively low ionic strength (~0.1) compared to that of seawater (~0.7), and, as a consequence, are not recommended for use in characterising the pH of seawater, since the ionic strength differences cause changes in electrode potential. To resolve this problem, an alternative series of buffers based on artificial seawater was developed. This new series resolves the problem of ionic strength differences between samples and the buffers, and the new pH scale is referred to as the total scale, often denoted as pH_T.

The total scale was defined using a medium containing sulfate ions. These ions experience protonation, H⁺ + SO₄^2− HSO₄^−, such that the total scale includes the effect of both protons (free hydrogen ions) and hydrogen sulfate ions:

:[H⁺]_T = [H⁺]_F + [HSO₄^−]

An alternative scale, the free scale, often denoted pH_F, omits this consideration and focuses solely on [H⁺]_F, in principle making it a simpler representation of hydrogen ion concentration. Only [H⁺]_T can be determined, therefore [H⁺]_F must be estimated using the [SO₄^2−] and the stability constant of HSO₄^−, K_S^*:

:[H⁺]_F = [H⁺]_T − [HSO₄^−] = [H⁺]_T ( 1 + [SO₄^2−] / K_S^* )^−1

However, it is difficult to estimate K_S^* in seawater, limiting the utility of the otherwise more straightforward free scale.

Another scale, known as the seawater scale, often denoted pH_SWS, takes account of a further protonation relationship between hydrogen ions and fluoride ions, H⁺ + F^− HF. Resulting in the following expression for [H⁺]_SWS:

:[H⁺]_SWS = [H⁺]_F + [HSO₄^−] + [HF]

However, the advantage of considering this additional complexity is dependent upon the abundance of fluoride in the medium. In seawater, for instance, sulfate ions occur at much greater concentrations (> 400 times) than those of fluoride. As a consequence, for most practical purposes, the difference between the total and seawater scales is very small.

The following three equations summarise the three scales of pH:

:pH_F = − log [H⁺]_F :pH_T = − log ( [H⁺]_F + [HSO₄^−] ) = − log [H⁺]_T :pH_SWS = − log ( [H⁺]_F + [HSO₄^−] + [HF] ) = − log [H⁺]_SWS

In practical terms, the three seawater pH scales differ in their values by up to 0.12 pH units, differences that are much larger than the accuracy of pH measurements typically required, in particular, in relation to the ocean's carbonate system. |- ! Compartment ! pH |- | Gastric acid || 1 |- | Lysosomes || 4.5 |- | Granules of chromaffin cells || 5.5 |- | Human skin || 5.5 |- | Urine || 6.0 |- | Neutral H₂O at 37 °C || 6.81 |- | Cytosol || 7.2 |- | Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) || 7.3 |- | Blood || 7.34–7.45 |- | Mitochondrial matrix || 7.5 |- | Pancreas secretions || 8.1 |} , resulting from decrease in body pH.]] The pH of different cellular compartments, body fluids, and organs is usually tightly regulated in a process called acid-base homeostasis.

The pH of blood is usually slightly basic with a value of pH 7.365. This value is often referred to as physiological pH in biology and medicine.

Plaque can create a local acidic environment that can result in tooth decay by demineralisation.

Enzymes and other proteins have an optimum pH range and can become inactivated or denatured outside this range.

The most common disorder in acid-base homeostasis is acidosis, which means an acid overload in the body, generally defined by pH falling below 7.35.

In the blood, pH can be estimated from known base excess (be) and bicarbonate concentration (HCO₃^-) by the following equation:

$\backslash mathrm\{pH\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{be\; -\; 0.93\backslash mathrm\{HCO\_3\}\; +\; 124\}\{13.77\}$

Extremes of pH

pH is normally measured in a range of 0-14. However, due to the way pH is calculated, it's possible to have negative pH and pH above 14. However, it should be noted that reported values outside the range 0-14 are somewhat controversial; as measuring pH beyond this range becomes difficult.

Runoff from mines/mine tailings can produce some of the most acidic pHs ever reported; with negative pHs measured and reported in the literature as low as pH -3.6.

See also

Acidosis

Alkalinity

Alkalosis

pH meter

pH indicator

References

External links

Online pH Calculator

Saliva pH Test

Category:Acid-base chemistry Category:Equilibrium chemistry Category:Units of measure Category:Water quality indicators

Coordinates	30°19′10″N81°39′36″N
Name	John Hagelin
Birth date	June 09, 1954
Birth place	Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Death date
Resting place coordinates
Residence	Fairfield, Iowa, USA
Known for	Three-time candidate for U.S. President, physicist, and administrator
Education	Ph.D. Harvard University, 1981
Doctoral advisor	Howard Georgi
Alma mater	Dartmouth College, Harvard University
Employer	Maharishi University of Management, US Peace Government
Occupation	Professor
Title	Raja of Invincible America, President of the US Peace Government, and others
Party	Natural Law Party
Spouse	Margaret (1985–1993) divorced Kara Anastasio (2010)
Awards	Kilby, Ig Nobel
Website	http://www.hagelin.org

John Hagelin (born June 9, 1954) is an American particle physicist, three-time candidate of the Natural Law Party for President of the United States (1992, 1996, and 2000), and the director of the Transcendental Meditation movement for the US.

Hagelin was a researcher at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC), and is now Professor of Physics and Director of the Institute of Science, Technology and Public Policy at Maharishi University of Management. He has conducted research into unified field theory and the Maharishi Effect.

Hagelin was appointed Raja of Invincible America by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and is also President of the US Peace Government. He is Executive Director of the International Center for Invincible Defense, Executive Director of the Global Financial Capital of New York, Executive Director of the Center for Leadership Performance, Director of the Board of Advisors for the David Lynch Foundation, Honorary Chairman of the Board of Trustees of Maharishi University of Management, and International Director of the Global Union of Scientists for Peace.

Early life and education

John Samuel Hagelin was born June 9, 1954, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. During childhood, he played soccer, hockey and the piano. Hagelin won a scholarship to Taft School for boys, where he received a perfect score of 165 on a school-administered IQ test and, according to Neil Dickie of The Iowa Source, "(...) was also a dare-devil".

Hagelin later graduated from Taft and attended Dartmouth College on a scholarship. After his freshman year, a continued interest in Transcendental Meditation led him to Vittel, France, where he completed the studies necessary to become a qualified teacher of the Transcendental Meditation technique. While at Dartmouth, he earned an undergraduate degree in physics in three years with highest honors (summa cum laude). He also co-authored and published papers in physics research and won a fellowship to study physics at Harvard. While at Harvard, Hagelin worked under the noted physicists Howard Georgi and Sheldon Glashow, best known for their work in Grand Unification theory (GUT). He received a Master's degree from Harvard in 1976, and a Ph.D. in 1981.

Professional careers

Scientist and academic

By the time Hagelin had received his Ph.D. from Harvard, he had already published "several serious papers" on particle theory. In 1981, Hagelin won a postdoctoral research appointment at CERN (the European Center for Particle Physics) in Switzerland, and in 1983 was recruited by SLAC (the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center), CERN's North American counterpart. Hagelin's move to MIU in 1984 surprised and puzzled his colleagues. Hagelin is also identified as the Founding President of Maharishi Central University, which was announced in 2007. Central University was under construction in Smith Center, Kansas at the site of a previously-announced Peace Palace until early 2008, when, according to Hagelin, the project was put on hold while the TM organization dealt with the death of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.

Theoretical physics research

During his time at CERN, SLAC and Maharishi University of Management (MUM), Hagelin worked on supersymmetric extensions of the standard model and grand unification theories. Several were described as "core papers" that were among the 20 most cited references in physics in their respective years, according to Current Contents magazine. This includes his work on the "flipped SU(5), heterotic superstring theory" that is considered one of the more successful unified field theories or "theories of everything" and was highlighted in a cover story in Discover magazine.

Hagelin co-authored a 1983 paper entitled "Weak symmetry breaking by radiative corrections in broken supergravity", which is included in a list of the 103 articles in the physical sciences that were cited the most times during the years 1983 and 1984. A 1984 study titled "Supersymmetric relics from the big bang", had been cited over 500 times as of 2007.

Critics of Hagelin have included physicist Peter Woit and journalist Christopher Andersen. Peter Woit in his book, Not Even Wrong: The Failure of String Theory and The Search for Unity In Physical Law, precedes his critical remarks by acknowledging Hagelin as having published papers in prestigious journals that would eventually be cited in over a hundred other papers. Christopher Anderson wrote in a 1992 news article in Nature that Hagelin, co-developer of one of the "better-accepted" unified field theories known as the Flipped SU(5) model, "is by all accounts a gifted researcher well known and respected by his colleagues". These papers discuss the Vedic understanding of consciousness as a field and compares it with theories of the unified field derived by modern physics. Hagelin argues that these two fields have almost identical properties and quantitative structure, and he presents other theoretical and empirical arguments that the two fields are actually one and the same — specifically, that the experience of unity at the basis of the mind achieved during the meditative state is the subjective experience of the very same fundamental unity of existence revealed by unified field theories. In 1999, the study, which controlled for effects of temperature changes and showed a highly statistically significant drop in crime, was published in Social Indicators Research. During the eight weeks of the study, the overall level of violent crime (homicides, rapes, and assaults) decreased by 23%, with rapes declining by 58%. Homicides averaged 10 a week during the study—the same as in the weeks preceding and following the study. For most of the eight weeks of the study the homicide rate declined, but gang fighting resulted in ten murders in a 36 hour period. Robert L. Park, research professor and former chair of the Physics Department at the University of Maryland and well known skeptic of paranormal claims, dismissed the study as a "clinic in data manipulation" and accused Hagelin and his team of scientific misconduct. Maxwell Rainforth, Assistant Professor of Physiology and Health and Statistics at Maharishi University of Management and a coauthor of the Washington, D.C. study, characterized Park's criticisms of the study as "superficial, highly polemical" and "willfully misleading".

Reception of Hagelin's connection of unified field of physics to the Maharishi Effect

Hagelin's interest in the connection between quantum physics and the Maharishi Effect has been discussed by both colleagues and critics. Hagelin was invited to be a plenary speaker at the 2007 Quantum Mind conference in Salzburg, Austria, organized by Stuart Hameroff (University of Arizona) and Gustav Bernroider (University of Salzburg). Hagelin was a featured scientist in the popular movies, What the Bleep Do We Know!?, What the Bleep? Down the Rabbit Hole (2006) and The Secret, which renewed interest in the quantum mind paradigm. Science writer Simon Singh questioned the credibility and motives of the interviewees in the film, and advised against seeing What the Bleep Do We Know!? as it would leave viewers misinformed. Anderson says Hagelin's investigations into how the extension of grand unified theories of physics to human consciousness could explain the way Transcendental Meditation is said to influence world events "disturbs many researchers" and "infuriates his former collaborators." According to Woit, Hagelin began connecting consciousness and the unified field in the late 1970s as a Ph.D. student at Harvard. Hagelin's collaborative work in particle physics continued until 1994. Anderson says that John Ellis, director of CERN, was worried about guilt by association. Anderson quotes Ellis as saying "I was afraid that people might regard [Hagelin's assertions] as rather flaky, and that might rub off on the theory or on us."

Hagelin's linkage of quantum mechanics and unified field theory with consciousness was critiqued by University of Iowa philosophy and sociology professors Evan Fales and Barry Markovsky in the journal Social Forces. They wrote that Hagelin's equating consciousness with the unified field relies on a similarity between quantum mechanical properties of fields and consciousness, and that his arguments rely on ambiguity and obscurity in characterizing these properties. They dismiss Hagelin's parallels between the Vedas and contemporary unified field theories as a reliance on ambiguity and vague analogy supported by constructing arbitrary similarities. David Orme-Johnson and Robert Oates, retired colleagues of Hagelin from MUM, replied to this critique in the Journal of Scientific Exploration and said, in part, that Fales' and Markovsky's accusation of "vagueness" and "ambiguity" on Hagelin's part are in themselves vague and ambiguous and that there is no standard against which they can be evaluated.

Entrepreneur

In 1990, Hagelin founded Enlightened Audio Designs Corporation (EAD) with electronics engineer Alastair Roxburgh. In 1996, EAD was the first company in the world to develop and commercialize home theater surround-sound processors incorporating multi-channel digital surround-sound technologies, such as Dolby Digital and DTS. In 2001, EAD Corporation was sold to the Oregon-based company Alpha Digital Technologies.

Politician

Natural Law Party

The Natural Law Party (NLP) was founded in 1992 in Fairfield, Iowa by Hagelin and a group of 12 educators, scientists, business leaders, and other professionals who desired a more scientific approach to national administration that would promote field-tested solutions to the nation's problems. The party platform included preventive health care, sustainable agriculture and renewable energy technologies. During his campaigns, Hagelin favored abortion rights without public financing, campaign-finance law reform and improved gun control. He proposed a flat tax and no tax for families earning less than $34,000 a year. Hagelin also campaigned to eradicate PACs and soft money campaign contributions and advocated safety locks on guns. He endorsed school vouchers and efforts to prevent war in the Middle East by reducing "people's tension".

Hagelin ran for President again in the 2000 Presidential election, being nominated both by the NLP and by the Perot wing of the Reform Party, which disputed the nomination of Pat Buchanan. Hagelin's running mate in the 2000 election was Nat Goldhaber, an entrepreneur who, like Hagelin and Tompkins, was a practitioner of Transcendental Meditation. As part of the ruling, the Reform Party convention that nominated Hagelin was declared invalid. In spite of the ruling, Hagelin remained on several state ballots as the Reform Party nominee, due to the independent nature of various state affiliates. He also was the national nominee of the Natural Law Party, and in New York was the Independence Party nominee. and Politically Incorrect (2000), NBC's Meet the Press (2000), CNN's Larry King Live, PBS's News Hour with Jim Lehrer, Inside Politics, CNBC's Hardball with Chris Matthews, and C-SPAN's Washington Journal.

Hagelin's Presidential electoral results: 1992 - Ballot status in 32 states - 39,212 votes 1996 - Ballot status in 43 states - 113,659 votes

In the middle of the 2000 campaign, Hagelin said that having the party's principles reach the "marketplace of ideas" and be co-opted by the Democrats and Republicans would be a victory.

In April 2004, the U.S. Natural Law Party officially disbanded its national organization, although a few state parties may still be active. In the 2004 primary elections, Hagelin and the Natural Law Party endorsed Democratic candidate Dennis Kucinich.

In 2010, Hagelin married Kara Anastasio, the former vice-chair of the Natural Law Party of Ohio.

Institute of Science, Technology and Public Policy

Hagelin is the Director of the Institute of Science, Technology and Public Policy, a think tank at Maharishi University of Management. According to their website, he has met with members of Congress and officials at the Department of State, and the Department of Defense on the issue of terrorism.

Hagelin helped to write a paragraph in Hillary Rodham Clinton's 10,000-page health proposal. He says that it was the only paragraph in the document that concerned health and preventive care.

Hagelin moderated a panel on stress at a June 3, 1999 Congressional Prevention Coalition caucus.

US Peace Government and Invincible America

in Lower Manhattan, former headquarters of the Center for Leadership Performance. When traveling to New York City, John Hagelin resided in one of the luxury apartments on its upper floors.]] Hagelin established the US Peace Government (USPG) on July 4, 2003, as an affiliate of the Global Country of World Peace. The US Peace Government and the Global Country of World Peace were created to promote evidence-based and sustainable solutions as well as policies of governance that are aligned with Natural Law. Hagelin presides over a national assembly of USPG state representatives or governors, who in turn preside over US Peace Government assemblies and capital buildings in their respective states. The offices for the U.S. Peace Government are located in Maharishi Vedic City, Iowa, and the office of the President was at The Jefferson hotel, Washington, D.C. in 2004.

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi appointed Hagelin as the "Raja of Invincible America" on November 19, 2007. Hagelin organized the Invincible America Assembly in Fairfield, Iowa which began in July 2006. The assembly consists of a group of individuals practicing the Transcendental Meditation and the TM-Sidhi techniques in a group, twice daily. Hagelin stated in a press release announcing the project that "for the United States, with a population of just over 300 million, the required number of peace-creating experts is 1,730". According to the Global Good News website "on 28 November 2006, the United States achieved invincibility and is stabilizing the number of Yogic Flyers—rising from 1,600 to 1,730—assembled at the Invincible America Assembly in Fairfield, Iowa". In addition, Hagelin's Institute for Science Technology and Public Policy web site says that the Invincible America Assembly in Iowa "is rising quickly toward its target of 2,500".

In July, 2007, Hagelin predicted that when the number of assembly participants reached 2,500, which he said would happen within a year, America would have a major drop in crime, and see the virtual elimination of all major social and political woes in the United States. Hagelin said that the Assembly was responsible for the Dow Jones Industrial Average reaching a record high of 14,022 earlier that month, and predicted that the Dow would top 17,000 within a year.

Awards

In 1992, Hagelin was honored with a Kilby International Award which "recognizes scientists who have made major contributions to society through their applied research in the fields of science and technology". Chris Anderson questioned the value of the award in an article about Hagelin published in Nature. The Master of ceremony and award's founder Mark Abrahams called it the world's most "(un)coveted award for achievements that cannot or should not be reproduced" which are given to "honor the world's largely overlooked scientists and other contributors to modern culture, who bring smiles and guffaws to others, whether intentional or not." Hagelin received the prize for his "experimental conclusion that 4,000 trained meditators caused an 18 percent decrease in violent crime in Washington, D.C."

Books

References

Further reading

Hagelin, J.S. Manual for a Perfect Government: How to Harness the Laws of Nature to Bring Maximum Success to Governmental Administration. Maharishi University of Management Press, 1998.

Freedman, David H: The new theory of everything. Discover, 1991, pp 54–61.

Hagelin, J: Is consciousness the unified field? A field theorist's perspective. Modern Science and Vedic Science 1, 1987, pp 29–87.

Hagelin, JS: Restructuring physics from its foundation in light of Maharishi's Vedic Science. Modern Science and Vedic Science 3, 1989, pp 3–72.

External links

Official site

MUM Faculty

PBS Bio

Invincible America Assembly daily tally

Political Platform

PBS Interview, 2000

LA Yoga Interview 2006

Category:1954 births Category:Dartmouth College alumni Category:Harvard University alumni Category:Ig Nobel Prize winners Category:Living people Category:Particle physicists Category:Politicians from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Category:Quantum mysticism Category:Transcendental Meditation practitioners Category:Transcendental Meditation researchers Category:United States presidential candidates, 1992 Category:United States presidential candidates, 1996 Category:United States presidential candidates, 2000 Category:Natural Law Party (United States) politicians