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This article deals with the Oirat ethnic group. For the obsolete term for the Turkic Altays, see Altay people.
Oirat (, Oirad; in the past, also Eleuths) is the common name of several pastoral nomadic tribes of Mongolian origin whose ancestral home is in the Altai region of western Mongolia. Although the Oirats originated in the eastern parts of Central Asia, the most prominent group today is located in the Republic of Kalmykia, a federal subject of the Russian Federation, where they are called Kalmyks. The Kalmyks migrated from Dzungaria to the southeastern European part of the Russian Federation nearly 400 years ago.
Historically, the Oirats were composed of four major tribes: Dzungar (Choros or Ölöt), Torghut, Dörbet, and Khoshut. The minor tribes include: Khoid, Bayid, Mangit, Zakhchin, Baatud, Barga and Darkhad.
Nowdays ovog-aymguud
:
Mongolia Монгол Улс
::
Торгууд,
Дөрвөд (Дөрвөд дотор
Хотон),
Баяд,
Захчин,
Мянгад,
Хойд,
Дархад,
Хошууд,
Өөлд,
Урианхай
:
China БНХАУ
:: Хөх нуур - Хошууд (Дээд Монгол)
:: Өвөр Монголын Алшаа аймаг - Алшаа Өөлд Хошууд, Эзнээ Торгууд
:: Шинжаань - Торгууд, Хошууд
:
Kyrgyzstan Бурууд улс
:: Сарт-калмак (Хотон-Халимаг)
:
Russian Federation
:: Халимаг - Бузава (Бузаава), Торгууд, Дөрвөд, Хойд, Хошууд
:
USA
:: Халимаг - Бузава (Бузаава), Торгууд, Дөрвөд
Writing system
In the 17th century,
Zaya Pandita, a
Gelug monk of the
Khoshut tribe, devised a new writing system called
Todo Bichig (clear script) for use by the Oirat people. This system was developed on the basis of the older
Mongolian script, but had a more developed system of
diacritics to exclude misreading, and reflected some lexic and grammar differences of the
Oirat language from
Mongolian.
The Todo Bichig writing system remained in use in Kalmykia (Russia) until the mid-1920s when it was replaced by a Latin-based script, and later the Cyrillic alphabet. It can be seen in some public signs in the Kalmyk capital, Elista, and is superficially taught in schools. In Mongolia it was likewise replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet in 1941. Some Oirats in China still use Todo Bichig as their primary writing system, as well as Mongolian script.
History
The Oirats or Western Mongols share some history, geography, culture and language with the
Eastern Mongols, and were at various times united under the same leader as a larger Mongol entity — whether that ruler was of Oirat or Eastern Mongolian descent.
The name Oirat may derive from a corruption of the group's original name Dörben Öörd, meaning "The Allied Four." Perhaps inspired by the designation Dörben Öörd, other Mongols at times used the term "Döchin Mongols" for themselves ("Döchin" meaning forty), but there was rarely as great a degree of unity among larger numbers of tribes as among the Oirats.
Comprising the Khoshut (Хошууд Hošuud), Choros or Ölöt (Өөлд Ööld), Torghut (Торгууд Torguud), and Dörbet (Дөрвөд Dörvöd) tribes, they were dubbed Kalmyk or Kalmak, which means "remnant" or "to remain," by their western Turkic neighbors. Various sources also list the Bargut, Buzav, Kerait, and Naiman tribes as comprising part of the Dörben Öörd; some tribes may have joined the original four only in later years. This name may however reflect the Kalmyks' remaining Buddhist rather than converting to Islam; or the Kalmyks' remaining in then Altay region when the Turkic peoples migrated to the West.
Early history
One of the earliest mentions of the Oirat people in a historical text can be found in the 'Secret History of the Mongols', the 13th century chronicle of
Genghis Khan's rise to power. In the Secret History, the Oirats are counted among the "forest people" and are said to live under the rule of a shaman-chief known as
bäki. In one famous passage the Oirat
chief, Quduqa Bäki, uses a
yada or 'thunder stone' to unleash a powerful storm on Genghis' army. The magical ploy backfires however, when an unexpected wind blows the storm back at Quduqa. During early stages of Temujin Genghis's rise, oirats under Quduqa bekhi fought against Genghis and were defeated. Oirats were fully submitted to Mongol rule after their ally Jamukha, Temujin's rival/friend was destroyed. Subject to the
khan oirats would form themselves as a loyal and formidable faction of the Mongol war machine. In 1207,
Jochi the eldest son of Genghis, subjugated the forest tribes including the Oirats and the
Kyrgyzs. The
Great Khan gave those people to his son, Jochi, and had one of his daughters, Checheygen, married the Oirat chief Khutug-bekhi or his son. There were notable Oirats in the
Mongol Empire such as
Arghun Agha and his son
Nowruz. In 1256, a body of the Oirats under Bukha-Temur joined
Hulegu's expedition to
Iran and fought against
Hashshashins,
Abbasids in
Persia. The
Ilkhan Hulegu and his successor
Abagha resettled them in
Turkey. And they took part in the
Second Battle of Homs where the Mongols were defeated. The majority of the Oirats, who were left behind, supported
Arik Boke against
Kublai. Kublai defeated his younger brother and they entered the service of the victor. In 1295, more than 10,000 Oirats under Targhai Khurgen (son-in-law of the
Borjigin family) fled
Syria, then under the
Mamluks because they were despised by both
Muslim Mongols and local
Turks. They were well received by the
Egyptian
Sultan Al-Adil Kitbugha of Oirat origin. Ali Pasha, who was the governor of
Baghdad, head of an Oirat ruling family, killed Ilkhan
Arpa Keun, resulting in the disintegration of Mongol Persia. Due to the fact that the Oirats were near both the
Chagatai Khanate and the
Golden Horde, they had strong ties with them and many Mongol khans had Oirat wives.
After the expulsion of the Yuan dynasty from China, the Oirats revived in history as a loose alliance of the four major West Mongolian tribes (Dörben Oirad). The alliance grew, taking power in the remote region of the Altai Mountains, northwest of Hami oasis. Gradually they spread eastward, annexing territories then under the control of the Eastern Mongols, and hoping to reestablish a unified nomadic rule under their banner.
The greatest ruler of the Four Oirats (Mongolian: Дөрвөн Ойрд) was Esen Tayisi who led the Four Oirats from 1438 to 1454, during which time he unified Mongolia (both Inner and Outer) under his rule. In 1449 Esen Tayisi mobilized his cavalry along the Chinese border and invaded Ming China, defeating and destroying the Ming defenses at the Great Wall and the reinforcements sent to intercept his cavalry. In the process, the Zhengtong Emperor was captured at Tumu. The following year, Esen returned the emperor. After claiming the title of khan, to which only lineal descendants of Genghis Khan could claim, Esen was deposed. Shortly afterwards, Oirat power declined.
From the 14th until the middle of the 18th century, the Oirats were often at war with the Eastern Mongols. Illustrative of this history is the Oirat epic song, 'The Rout of Mongolian Sholoi Ubushi Khong Tayiji', about the war between the Oirats and the first Altan Khan of the Khalkha.
The Khoshut Khanate
The Oirats converted to
Tibetan Buddhism around 1615, and it was not long before they became involved in the conflict between the
Gelug and
Karma Kagyu schools. At the request of the Gelug school, in 1637,
Güshi Khan, the leader of the Khoshuts in Koko Nor, defeated
Choghtu Khong Tayiji, the Khalkha prince who supported the Karma Kagyu school, and conquered
Amdo (present-day
Qinghai). The unification of
Tibet followed in 1641, with Güshi Khan proclaimed Khan of Tibet by the
Fifth Dalai Lama. The title "
Dalai Lama" itself was bestowed upon the third lama of the Gelug
tulku lineage by
Altan Khan (not to be confused with the
Altan Khans of the Khalkha), and means, in Mongolian, "Ocean of Wisdom."
Amdo, meanwhile, became home to the Khoshuts. In 1717, the Dzungars invaded Tibet and killed Lha-bzang Khan (or Khoshut Khan), a grandson of Güshi Khan and the fourth Khan of Tibet.
In 1723 Lobzang Danjin, another descendant of Güshi Khan, defended Amdo against Qing Dynasty's attempts to extend its rule into Tibet, but was crushed in the following year. Thus, Amdo fell under Chinese domination.
The Dzungar Empire
The 17th century saw the rise in power of another Oirat empire in the east, known as the Khanate of
Zungaria, which stretched from the
Great Wall of China to present-day eastern
Kazakhstan, and from present-day northern
Kyrgyzstan to southern
Siberia. It was the last
Empire of the
Great Nomads of Asia, which was ruled by the Choros noblemen.
The Qing (or Manchu) conquered China in the mid-17th century and sought to protect its northern border by continuing the divide-and-rule policy their Ming predecessors had successfully instituted against the Mongols. The Manchu consolidated their rule over the East Mongols of Manchuria. They then persuaded the East Mongols of Inner Mongolia to submit themselves as vassals. Finally, the East Mongols of Outer Mongolia sought the protection of the Manchu against the Dzungars.
Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of Zungaria in 1755-1757.
Kalmyks
:
Main article:
Kalmyks
The Kalmyk Khanate
Kho Orlök, tayishi of the Torghuts, and Dalai Batur, tayishi of a small group of Derbets, led their people westward at the beginning of the 17th century. By some accounts this move was precipitated by internal divisions or by the Khoshot tribe; other historians believe it more likely the migrating clans were seeking pastureland for their herds, scarce in the Central Asian highlands. Part of the Khoshot and Ölöt tribes would join the migration almost a century later.
The Kalmyk migration had reached as far as the steppes of southeast Europe by 1630. At the time, that area was inhabited by the Nogai Horde. But under pressure from Kalmyk warriors, the Nogais fled to the Crimea and the Kuban River. Many other nomadic peoples in the Eurasian steppes subsequently became vassals of the Kalmyk Khanate, part of which is in the area of present-day Kalmykia. Later they became nominal, then full subjects of the Russian Tsar. Following the Russian revolution their settlement was accelerated, Buddhism stamped out and herds collectivised. In 1944 all Kalmyks were expelled to Siberia by Stalin, accused of supporting invading Axis armies attacking Stalingrad (Volgograd). Only two-thirds of them survived to return and re-establish Kalmykia in 1957. Now they are trying to revive their language and religion.
Xinjiang Mongols
The Mongols of
Xinjiang form a minority, principally in the northern part of the region. They are primarily descendants of the surviving
Torghuds and
Khoshuds who returned from
Kalmykia, and of the
Chakhar stationed there as garrison soldiers in 18th century. The emperor had sent messages asking the Kalmyks to return, and erected a smaller copy of the Potala in Jehol (the country residence of the Manchu Emperors) to mark their arrival. A model copy of that "Little Potala" was made in China for the Swedish explorer Sven Hedin, and was erected at the Great Exhibition of Chicago. It is now in storage in Sweden, where there are plans to re-erect it. Some of the returnees did not come that far and still live, now as Muslims, at the South-western end of Lake Issyk-kul in present-day Kirghizia.
Alxa Mongols
Bordering
Gansu and west of Irgay River is called
Alxa or Alaša, Alshaa, and Mongols who moved there are called the Alshaa Mongols.
Törbaih Güshi Khan’s 4th son Ayush was opposed to the Khan’s brother Baibagas. Ayush’s eldest son is Baatar Erkh Jonon Khoroli. After the battle between Galdan Boshigt Khan and Ochir Setsen, Khoroli moved to Tsaidam with his 10,000 households. The 5th Dalai Lama wanted land for them from the Qing government, thus in 1686, the Emperor permitted them to reside in Alshaa.
In 1697, Alshaa Mongols were administered in 'khoshuu' and 'sum' units. A khoshuu with eight sums was created, Khoroli was appointed to Beil, and Alshaa was thus a 'zasag-khoshuu'. Alshaa was however like an 'aimag' and never administered under a 'chuulgan'.
In 1707, when Khoroli died, his son Abuu succeeded him. He was in Beijing from his youth, served as bodyguard of the Emperor, and a princess (of the Emperor) was given to him, thus making him a 'Khoshoi Tavnan', i.e. Emperor’s groom. In 1793, Abuu became Jün Wang. There are several thousand Muslim Alshaa Mongols.
Mongols who lived along the Ejine River descended from Ravjir, a grandson of Torguud Ayush Khan from the Ijil (Volga) River.
In 1678, Ravjir - with his mother, younger sister and 500 people - went to Tibet to pray. While they were returning via Beijing in 1704, Qing emperor Kangxi let them stay there for some years and later organized a 'khoshuu' for them in a place called Sertei, and made Ravjir the governor.
In 1716, Kangxi Emperor sent him with his people to Hami, near the border of Qing China and Zunghar Khanate, for intelligence-gathering purposes against the Oirats. When Ravjir died his eldest son Denzen succeeded him. He was afraid of the Dzungar and wanted the Qing government to allow them to move away from the border. They were settled in Dalan Uul–Altan. When Denzen was died in 1740, his son Lubsan Darjaa succeeded him and became Beil.
In 1753, they were settled on the banks of the Ejine River and the Ejine River Torguud 'khoshuu' was thus formed.
Literature
Khoyt S.K. White spots in dorwod (derbet) ethnogenesis - in russian
Khoyt S.K. Last data by localisation and number of oyirad (oirat) (rar) - in russian
Khoyt S.K. Last data by localisation and number of oyirad (oirat) (htm republication) - in russian
Khoyt S.K. Other ethnic inclusion in european oyirad (oirat) groups by family trees (genealogys) datas. doc, 114 kb (rar, 14 kb) - in russian
Khoyt S.K. The miscegenation problem in kalmyk society. - in russian
Wang Jinglan, Shao Xingzhou, Cui Jing et al. Anthropological survey on the Mongolian Tuerhute tribe in He shuo county, Xinjiang Uigur autonomous region // Acta anthropologica sinica. Vol. XII, № 2. May, 1993. p. 137-146.
Санчиров В. П. О Происхождении этнонима торгут и народа, носившего это название // Монголо-бурятские этнонимы: cб. ст. — Улан-Удэ: БНЦ СО РАН, 1996. C. 31—50. - in Russian
Galushkin S.K., Spitsyn V.A., Crawford M.H. Genetic Structure of Mongolic-speaking Kalmyks // Human Biology, December 2001, v.73, no. 6, pp. 823–834.
Хойт С.К. Генетическая структура европейских ойратских групп по локусам ABO, RH, HP, TF, GC, ACP1, PGM1, ESD, GLO1, SOD-A // Проблемы этнической истории и культуры тюрко-монгольских народов. Сборник научных трудов. Вып. I. Элиста: КИГИ РАН, 2009. с. 146-183. - in Russian
See also
Four Oirats
Kalmyk people
Dzungar
Kalmykia
Altay people
References
External links
Oyirad-mongols (shot notes, photo, historical review, maps)
Mongolistic forum
Oirad Mongols auf mandal.ca
Timeline of Oyirad history as defenders of Tibetan Buddhist hierarchy
the regional history page at the Altai Republic's official web portal
Category:Oirats
Category:Kalmykia
Category:Ethnic groups in Asia
Category:Ethnic groups in China
Category:History of Mongolia
Category:Mongol peoples
