Menelik I (called Bäynä Ləkḥəm in the Kəbrä Nägäśt; also named Ebna la-Hakim, Arabic: Ibn Al-Hakim, "Son of the Wise"), first Jewish Emperor of Ethiopia, is traditionally believed to be the son of King Solomon of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Sheba (in modern Yemen). He is alleged to have ruled around 950 BC, according to traditional sources.^[1][2] Tradition credits him with bringing the Ark of the Covenant to Ethiopia, following a visit to Jerusalem to meet his father upon reaching adulthood. According to the Kebra Nagast, King Solomon had intended on sending one son of each of his nobles and one son each of each temple priest with Menelik upon his return to his mother's kingdom. He is supposed to have had a replica made of the Ark for them to take with them. Upon the death of Queen Makeda, Menelik assumed the throne with the new title of Emperor and King of Kings of Ethiopia.

According to legend, he founded the Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia that ruled Ethiopia with few interruptions for close to three thousand years (and 225 generations later ended with the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974).

A counterpoint to this legend is that kings of Ethiopia are only attested in record from the 700's BC, when the was a kingdom named D'mt located in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia that existed during the late 8th to 5th centuries BC. Few inscriptions by or about this kingdom exist. As a result, it is not known whether Dʿmt ended as a civilization before the Kingdom of Axum was established on the Red Sea coast in the 400's BC, evolved into the Aksumite state, or was one of the smaller states united in the united Aksumite kingdom possibly around the beginning of the 1st century AD.^[3]

In reality, the medieval incarnation of the Solomonic dynasty didn't come into power until 1262 AD, claiming descent from the Kings of Aksûm. The dynasty, a bastion of Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, came to rule Ethiopia on 10 Nehasé 1262 AD EC^[4] (August 10, AD 1270) when Yekuno Amlak overthrew the last ruler of the Zagwe dynasty. Their predecessors, the Zagwe dynasty, were said to not be of "the house of Israel" (i.e. of Solomon and Menelik). The claims of descent of the Aksûmite Kings preceding the Zagwe dynasty are uncertain, though early pagan inscription denote the King as "son of the unconquerable [god] Mahrem" (translated in Greek as Ares), while medieval Ethiopian sources ascribe them a similar claim of descent. This is consistent with the earliest records that testify that one half of Ethiopians followed the laws of Moses, while the other half worshipped pagan gods.

See also[link]

• Menelik II of Ethiopia (1844–1913)

References [link]

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Horace Swaby (June 21, 1954 – May 18, 1999), known as Augustus Pablo, was a Jamaican roots reggae and dub record producer, melodica player and keyboardist, active from the 1970s onwards. He popularized the use of the melodica (an instrument at that time primarily used to teach children music in the Jamaican public schools) in reggae music. He was a committed Rastafarian.

Biography[link]

He was born in St. Andrew, Jamaica, and learned to play the organ at the Kingston College School. It was at that point an unnamed girl lent him the melodica. Fascinated by the instrument, Pablo rarely put it down. He also met Herman Chin Loy, who after working at his cousin Leslie Kong's Beverley's record shop, had set up his own Aquarius store in Half Way Tree. Swaby recorded early tracks including "Higgi Higgi", "East of the River Nile", "Song of the East" and "The Red Sea" between 1971 and 1973 for Chin-Loy's Aquarius Records.^[1] Chin Loy had previously used the name Augustus Pablo generically for keyboard instrumentals recorded by Lloyd Charmers and Glen Adams,^[2][3] and Swaby took the name for this recording.

"East of the River Nile", a unique blend of East Asian and Jamaican sounds, became a moderate hit. He soon joined Now Generation (Mikey Chung's band) and played the keyboard with them while his friend Clive Chin began his own career as a record producer. Pablo and Chin recorded "Java" (1972) together,^[1] as soon as Pablo quit Now Generation and Clive was able to get the studio time. This instrumental was a massive hit and launched Pablo's solo career. He recorded with Chin and various others, including Leonard Chin, his uncle, and Lee Perry. He scored another smash hit with "My Desire" (John Holt).

Pablo formed the labels Hot Stuff, Message and Rockers (named after his brother's soundsystem, Rockers), and released a steady stream of well-received instrumentals, mostly versions of older hits from Studio One. In spite of his success with Rockers, Pablo's 1974 album, This Is Augustus Pablo was recorded with Clive and Pat Chin. This was followed by a collaboration with the legendary reggae engineer King Tubby, 1975's Ital Dub.

In the later 1970s, Pablo produced a steady stream of hits, including the hit "Black Star Liner" (Fred Locks). He also worked with Dillinger, Norris Reid, I-Roy, Jacob Miller, Te -Track, The Immortals, Paul Blackman, Earl Sixteen, Roman Stewart, Lacksley Castell, The Heptones, Bob Marley, Ricky Grant, Delroy Wilson, Junior Delgado, Horace Andy and Freddy McKay. This period was eventually commemorated with critically acclaimed LPs including King Tubby Meets Rockers Uptown (1976) and Hugh Mundell's classic Africa Must be Free by 1983. This was followed by East of the River Nile (1978), Original Rockers (1979) and Rockers Meets King Tubby in a Firehouse, another acclaimed hit album.

In the 1980s, Pablo's career slowed significantly. In 1980, he appeared on the soundtrack of the documentary D.O.A. He had begun to establish an American audience and released Rising Sun in 1986 to good reviews and sales. Pablo also produced memorable hits, including "Ragamuffin Year" (Junior Delgado), "Humble Yourself" (Asher & Tremble) and "Far Far Away" (Ricky Grant). In addition, he toured extensively throughout the world, making a memorable live album in Tokyo in 1987. That same year, Rockers Come East re-established his career and he began to release a series of critically acclaimed though somewhat inaccessible albums in the 1990s, including Blowing With the Wind and also producing several, such as "Night & Day" (single) (Dawn Penn) and "Jah Made Them All" (Yami Bolo).

Augustus Pablo died as a result of a collapsed lung on 18 May 1999.^[4] He had been suffering for some time from the nerve disorder myasthenia gravis.^[5]

Selected discography[link]

• This Is...Augustus Pablo (1974)
• Thriller (1974)
• Ital Dub (1975)
• King Tubby Meets Rockers Uptown (1976)
• East of the River Nile (1977)
• Original Rockers (1979)
• Africa Must Be Free by... 1983 Dub (1979)
• Rockers Meets King Tubby in a Firehouse (1980)
• Authentic Golden Melodies (1980)
• Earth's Rightful Ruler (1982)
• King David's Melody (1983)
• Rising Sun (1986)
• Rebel Rock Reggae (1986)
• Rockers Come East (1987)
• Eastman Dub (1988)
• Presents Rockers Story (1989)
• Blowing with the Wind (1990)
• Presents Rockers International Showcase (1991)
• Meets King Tubby at the Control in Roots Vibes (1996)
• Red Sea (1998)
• Valley of Jehosaphat (1999)
• El Rocker's (2000)
• The Great Pablo (2000)
• Dubbing with the Don (2001)
• Jah Inspiration (2001)
• Skanking with Pablo: Melodica for Hire 1971–77 (2002)
• In Fine Style: 7" & 12" Selection 1973–79 (2003)
• The Essential Augustus Pablo (2005)
• Augustus Pablo Meets Lee Perry & the Wailers Band (Rare Dubs 1970–1971) (2006)
• The Mystic World of Augustus Pablo: The Rockers Story (2008)

References[link]

External links[link]

Prince Far I (c. 1944 – 15 September 1983) was a Jamaican reggae deejay, producer and a Rastafarian. He was known for his gruff voice and critical assessment of the Jamaican government. His track "Heavy Manners" used lyrics against measures initiated towards violent crime.^[1]

Biography[link]

He was born Michael James Williams in Spanish Town, Jamaica. Williams' first job in the music industry was as a deejay on the Sir Mike the Musical Dragon sound system,^[2] also working as a security guard at Joe Gibbs' studio, and later as a bouncer at Studio One, but after recording "The Great Booga Wooga" for Bunny Lee in 1969 (under the name King Cry Cry, a reference to his habit of breaking into tears when angered),^[2][3][4] he got the chance in 1970 to record for Coxsone Dodd when King Stitt failed to turn up for a session.^[5] Dodd was sufficiently impressed to release the resulting recordings,^[5] Williams now using the name Prince Far I at the suggestion of another producer he had worked with, Enos McLeod).^[3] With a unique deep bass voice and talking over style, preferring to describe himself as a "chanter" rather than a "toaster",^[4] he became a popular reggae musician, styling himself "The Voice of Thunder".

His first album, Psalms For I, featuring the Lord's Prayer and various psalms, was dedicated to the illiterate who could not read the Bible for themselves. He then worked with Joe Gibbs on the second album, Under Heavy Manners, before being signed by Virgin Records for their Frontline label. Twelve albums followed between 1978 and 1981, including the highly regarded Cry Tuff Dub Encounter series of dub albums, produced by Williams and released on his Cry Tuff label, and featuring the Roots Radics under the pseudonym The Arabs.^[4] Spending an increasing amount of time in England, he also collaborated with UK On-U Sound Records including providing vocals in the reggae collective Singers & Players and may be considered a mentor figure to Adrian Sherwood. His final live performance took place on 7 December 1982 at Band on the Wall, Manchester, where he performed with Suns of Arqa^[6] This performance is captured on his album Musical Revue. In 1983, he was recording the album Umkhonto We Sizwe (Spear of the Nation) with producer Roy Cousins in Kingston. Before the album was finished he was shot at his home in Kingston, Jamaica, during a robbery, allegedly relating to a dispute over money,^[7] and died later in hospital.

Vocals he recorded for Suns of Arqa in the late 1970s and early 1980s have been repeatedly reused by the band on a variety of tracks and remixes, ranging from their first album in 1979 to (so far) 2006. He is credited for vocals on the sleeve of each of the releases in question.^[8] His vocals also appear on their much remixed single "Govinda", which was originally produced by his former collaborator Adrian Sherwood.^[9]

He is referred to by The Clash in their single "Clash City Rockers" and also by The Mountain Goats in the song "Sept. 15th 1983", a reference to the date of his death.

Discography[link]

Albums[link]

• Psalms For I (Carib Gems, 1975)
• Under Heavy Manners (Joe Gibbs, 1976)
• Message from the King (Virgin Front Line 1978)
• Long Life (Virgin Front Line, 1978)
• Cry Tuff Dub Encounter Chapter 1 (Cry Tuff/Hit Run, 1978)
• Cry Tuff Dub Encounter Part 2 (Cry Tuff/Virgin Front Line, 1979)
• Free From Sin (Trojan, 1979)
• Dub To Africa (Price Far I, 1979)
• Jamaican Heroes (Trojan, 1980)
• Cry Tuff Dub Encounter Chapter 3 (Cry Tuff/Daddy Kool, 1980)
• Showcase in a Suitcase (Pre, 1980)
• Livity (Pre, 1981)
• Voice of Thunder (Trojan, 1981)
• Cry Tuff Dub Encounter Chapter 4 (Cry Tuff/Trojan, 1981)
• Musical History (Trojan, 1983)
• Musical Revue / Suns of Arqa Live with Prince Far I (1983)
• Umkhonto We Sizwe (Spear of the Nation) (Kingdom/Tamoki Wambesi 1984)
• Health and Strength (Pressure Sounds, 1998)

Compilation albums[link]

• Black Man Land (1990)
• Dubwise (1991)
• Cry Freedom Dub (1994)
• In the House of Vocal & Dub with King Tubby (1995)
• DJ Originators Head To Head Volume Two Prince Far I & Trinity (1996)
• Megabit 25, 1922-Dub (1998)
• Ten Commandments (1999)
• The Golden Years 1977-1983 (1999)
• Heavy Manners: Anthology 1977-83 (Trojan, 2003)
• Silver & Gold 1973-1975 (Blood and Fire, 2005)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Tribute site to Prince Far I
• Prince Far I discography
• Prince Far I information at On-U Sound site

Kool Keith
Kool Keith performing at Mezzanine in San Francisco, California during the 2009 Noise Pop Festival.
Background information
Birth name	Keith Matthew Thornton
Also known as	Dr. Octagon, Dr. Dooom, Black Elvis
Born	(1963-10-19) October 19, 1963 (age 48)
Origin	The Bronx, New York
Genres	Hip hop
Occupations	Rapper, producer
Instruments	Rapping, keyboard, bass guitar
Years active	1984–present
Labels	Junkadelic, Gothom, Funky Ass, DreamWorks Records, Ruffhouse/Columbia/SME Records
Associated acts	Ultramagnetic MCs Analog Brothers Masters of Illusion Thee Undatakerz The Clayborne Family KutMasta Kurt Dan the Automator The Prodigy 54-71 Diesel Truckers Spazz Princess Superstar
Website	www.koolkeith.co.uk

Keith Matthew Thornton, better known by his stage name Kool Keith, is an American rapper from The Bronx, New York. A founding member of Ultramagnetic MCs, Kool Keith has recorded prolifically both as a solo artist and in group collaborations. Kool Keith is the self-proclaimed inventor of horrorcore.^[1]

History[link]

Kool Keith began his rap career with the group Ultramagnetic MCs. After the release of Critical Beatdown, Thornton was reportedly institutionalized in Bellevue Hospital Center.^[2][3] However, he later said that the idea that he was institutionalized came from a flippant remark made during a stressful interview and he never expected the story to become so well-known.^[4]

Thornton released his first notable solo single, "Earth People," in 1995, under the name Dr. Octagon, followed by the release of Dr. Octagonecologyst the following year. The album's production by Dan the Automator and Kutmasta Kurt, with scratching by DJ Qbert was acclaimed by critics, and the album was released nationally by DreamWorks Records, which also issued an instrumental version of the album, titled Instrumentalyst (Octagon Beats).^[2][3] Thornton followed the album with Sex Style in 1997 under the name Kool Keith.

In 1998, Thornton collaborated with Tim Dog for the single "The Industry is Wack," performing under the name Ultra.^[2][3] The following year, he released the album First Come, First Served under the name "Dr. Dooom", in which the album's main character killed off Dr. Octagon on the album's opening track. On August 10, 1999, Thornton released Black Elvis/Lost in Space. It peaked at #10 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart, #74 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, and #180 on the Billboard 200.^[5] On July 25, 2000, Thornton released the album Matthew. It peaked at #47 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart.^[6] The same year, Thornton collaborated with Ice-T, Marc Live, Black Silver and Pimp Rex for the album Pimp to Eat, under the group name Analog Brothers, with Keith performing as Keith Korg and Ice-T as Ice Oscillator.^[2]

On June 5, 2001, Thornton released the album Spankmaster on Esham's Gothom Records.^[7] It peaked at #16 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart, #11 on the Top Independent Albums chart and #48 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart.^[8]

In 2002, Thornton began recording The Resurrection of Dr. Octagon with producer Fanatik J,^[9][10] signing a contract with CMH Records to release the album, which was eventually completed without much input from Thornton, due to a falling out over contractual terms.^[10] Thornton, Marc Live and H-Bomb formed the group KHM, releasing the album Game on November 19, 2002, changing their name to "The Clayborne Family" by the release of their second album.^[3]

On October 12, 2004, Real Talk Entertainment issued the unauthorized release Dr. Octagon Part 2. The album was discontinued by court order.^[3] On April 25, 2006, Thornton released the album Nogatco Rd. under the name Mr. Nogatco.^[3] On June 27, The Return of Dr. Octagon was released by OCD International, an imprint of CMH, advertised as the official follow-up to Dr. Octagonecologyst.^[10] Some critics felt that it was not as good as its predecessor.^[11][12] Thornton stated that he liked the album, but felt that it hurt his reputation as a musician.^[10] In August, Thornton performed under the Dr. Octagon billing, but did not acknowledge the release of the OCD album.^[13]

In 2007, Ultramagnetic MCs released the reunion album The Best Kept Secret.^[3] In 2009, Kool Keith released the concept album Tashan Dorrsett; a follow-up, The Legend of Tashan Dorrsett, followed two years later.^[3]

Lyrical and performance style[link]

Thornton's lyrics are often abstract,^[14] surreal,^[15] and filled with non-sequiturs and juvenile humor.^[16] Thornton is also known for an explicit style focusing on sexual themes, which Thornton has referred to as "pornocore".^[17][18] In a 2007 interview, Thornton claims to have "invented horrorcore".^[1]

Discography[link]

• Dr. Octagonecologyst (1996)
• Sex Style (1997)
• First Come, First Served (1999)
• Black Elvis/Lost in Space (1999)
• Matthew (2000)
• Spankmaster (2001)
• Diesel Truckers (2004)
• Nogatco Rd. (2006)
• The Return of Dr. Octagon (2006)
• Dr. Dooom 2 (2008)
• Tashan Dorrsett (2009)
• The Legend of Tashan Dorrsett (2011)
• Love & Danger (2012)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• www.ultrakeith.net
• Kool Keith at Allmusic
• Interview

Menelik II
Emperor of Ethiopia
Coronation	3 November 1889
Predecessor	Yohannes IV
Successor	Lij Iyasu (designated but uncrowned Emperor of Ethiopia)
Issue
Zauditu Shoagarad Wossen Seged
Father	Haile Melekot, King of Shewa
Mother	Ijigayehu
Born	(1844-08-17)17 August 1844 Angolela, Shewa
Died	12 December 1913(1913-12-12) (aged 69)
Religion	Ethiopian Orthodox

This article contains Ethiopic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Ethiopic characters.

Emperor Menelik II GCB, GCMG, (Ge'ez ምኒልክ) baptized as Sahle Maryam (17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), was Negus^{[nb 1]} of Shewa (1866–89), then Nəgusä Nägäst^{[nb 2]} of Ethiopia from 1889 to his death. At the height of his internal power and external prestige, the process of territorial expansion and creation of the modern empire-state had been completed by 1898.^[1] Ethiopia was transformed under Nəgusä Nägäst Menelik: the major signposts of modernization were put in place.^[2] Externally, his victory over the Italians had earned him great fame: following Adwa, recognition of Ethiopia’s independence by external powers was expressed in terms of diplomatic representation at the court of Menelik and delineation of Ethiopia’s boundaries with the adjacent colonies.^[1] Menelik II is considered an African icon and one of the most powerful black people in history.^[3]

Biography[link]

Abeto Menelik (Sahle Maryam) was born in Angolela, near Debre Birhan, Shewa. He was the son of Negus Haile Melekot of Shewa and Woizero^{[nb 3]} Ijigayehu. Woizero Ijigayehu was a lady in the household of Haile Melekot's grandmother, the formidable Woizero Zenebework, widow of Merid Azmatch Wossen Seged, and mother of King Sahle Selassie of Shewa. Most sources indicate that while no marriage took place between Haile Melekot and Woizero Ijigayehu, Sahle Selassie ordered his grandson legitimized.

Prior to his death in 1855, Negus Haile Melekot named Menelik as successor to the throne of Shewa. Shortly after Haile Melekot died, Menelik was taken prisoner by Nəgusä Nägäst Tewodros II. Following Nəgusä Nägäst Tewodros II's conquest of Shewa, he had young Sahle Maryam transferred to his mountain stronghold of Magdala. Still, Tewodros treated the young prince well. He even offered him the hand of his daughter Altash Tewodros in marriage, which Menelik accepted.

Upon Menelik's imprisonment, his uncle, Haile Mikael, was appointed as Shum^{[nb 4]} of Shewa by Nəgusä Nägäst Tewodros II with the title of Meridazmach^{[nb 5]}. However, Meridazmach Haile Mikael rebelled against Tewodros, resulting in his being replaced by the non-royal Ato^{[nb 6]} Bezabeh as Shum. However, Ato Bezabeh in turn then rebelled against the Emperor and proclaimed himself Negus of Shewa. Although the Shewan royals imprisoned at Magdala had been largely complacent as long as a member of their family ruled over Shewa, this usurpation by a commoner was not palatable to them. They plotted the escape of Menelik from Magdala; with the help of Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he escaped from Magdala the night of 1 July 1865, abandoning his wife, and returned to Shewa. Enraged, Emperor Tewodros slaughtered 29 Oromo hostages then had 12 Amhara notables beaten to death with bamboo rods.^[4]

King of Shewa[link]

Bezabeh's attempt to raise an army against Menelik failed miserably; thousands of Shewans rallied to the flag of the son of Negus Haile Melekot and even Bezabeh's own soldiers deserted him for the returning prince. Abeto Menelik entered Ankober and proclaimed himself Negus. While Negus Menelik reclaimed his ancestral Shewan crown, he also laid claim to the Imperial throne, as a direct descendant male line of Nəgusä Nägäst Lebna Dengel. However, he made no overt attempt to assert this claim during this time; Marcus interprets his lack of decisive action not only to Menelik's lack of confidence and experience, but that "he was emotionally incapable of helping to destroy the man who had treated him as a son."^[5] Not wishing to take part in the 1868 Expedition to Abyssinia, he allowed his rival Kassai to benefit with gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. Afterwards other challenges—a revolt amongst the Wollo to the north, the intrigues of his next wife Baffana to replace him with her choice of ruler, military failures against the Arsi Oromo to the south east—kept Menelik from directly confronting Kassai until after his rival had brought an Abuna from Egypt who crowned him Nəgusä Nägäst Yohannes IV.

Submission to Yohannes[link]

Eventually Menelik acquiesced to the superior position of Yohannes and, on 20 March 1878, Menelik "approached Yohannes on foot. He was carrying a rock on his neck and his face was down in the traditional form of submission.^[6] However, very aware of how precarious his own position was, Yohannes recognized Menelik as Negus of Shewa and gave him numerous presents which included four cannons, several hundred modern Remington rifles, and ammunition for both.^[7]

Succession[link]

On 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes was killed in a war against the dervishes during the Battle of Gallabat (Matemma). With his dying breaths, Yohannes declared his natural son, Dejazmach Mengesha Yohannes, as his heir. On 25 March, upon hearing of the death of Yohannes, Negus Menelik immediately proclaimed himself as Nəgusä Nägäst.^[8]

The succession now lay between Mengesha Yohannes of Tigray and Menelik of Shewa. Menelek argued that while the family of Yohannes IV claimed descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba through females of the dynasty, his own claim was based on uninterrupted direct male lineage which made the claims of the House of Shewa equal to those of the elder Gondar line of the dynasty. In the end, Menelik was able to obtain the allegiance of a large majority of the Ethiopian nobility. On 3 November 1889, Menelik was consecrated and crowned as Nəgusä Nägäst before a glittering crowd of dignitaries and clegy. He was crowned by Abuna Mattewos, Bishop of Shewa, at the Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.^[9]

The newly consecrated and crowned Nəgusä Nägäst Menelik II quickly toured the north in force. He received the submission of the local officials in Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Welo, and Begemder.^[8]

Menelik, and later his daughter Zauditu, would be the last Ethiopian monarchs who could claim uninterrupted direct male descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (both Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie were in the female line, Iyasu through his mother Shewarega Menelik, and Haile Selassie through his paternal grandmother, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).

His reign as emperor[link]

In April 1889, while claiming the throne against Mengesha Yohannes, Menelik reached at Wuchale (Uccialli in Italian) in Wollo province a treaty with Italy, putting the northern province of Eritrea temporarily under the Italian protection. Most of the highland area of this province was part of Abyssinian kingdoms for hundreds of years under the title of Medri-Bahri (Land of the Sea), consisting of the districts of Hamasien, Akele-Guzay, and Seraye. It was also referred to as Merab Melash, meaning the "Land Beyond the River". The river was the boundary that separated the two northern Abyssinian provinces; Medri-Bahri and Tigrai.

Menelik signed the Treaty of Wuchale with the Italians on May 2, 1889. Controversy soon emerged on the interpretation of article 17 of the treaty. While the Amharic text reads that Menelik could, if he wished, call upon the services of the Italian authorities in his communications with other powers, the Italian version made this obligatory, thereby making Eritrea in effect a protectorate of Italy.

Tapestry of the Battle of Adwa.

Emperor Menelik denounced it and demanded that the Italian version be changed. Negotiations failed, so Menelik renounced the treaty, leading Italy to declare war and invade from Eritrea. After defeating the Italians at Amba Alagi and Mekele, Menelik inflicted an even greater defeat on them, at Adwa on 1 March 1896, forcing them to capitulate. A treaty was signed at Addis Ababa recognizing the absolute sovereign independence of Ethiopia.

Menelik II can be named as father for modern Ethiopia. He was a russophile because he thought only Russia could be the main ally of his policy of integration of Ethiopia by reason of necessity to counteract the British colonial expansion and sabotage against integration, starting with the war against the British (1868 Expedition to Abyssinia, theft of Kebra Nagast and death of Tewodros II).^[10][11]

Portrait of Menelik II.

During the visit of a Russian diplomatic and military mission in 1893, Menelik II concluded a strong alliance with that country. As a result of that alliance, from 1893–1913, Russia sponsored the visits of thousands of advisers and volunteers to Ethiopia.^[12] Two friendships that evolved from these visits were friendships between Menelik II and Alexander Bulatovich and also between Menelek II and Nikolay Gumilyov the great poet.^[10][13][14]

Menelik had in 1898 crushed a rebellion by Ras Mengesha Yohannes (who died in 1906). He directed his efforts thenceforth to the consolidation of his authority, and in a certain degree, to the opening up of his country to western civilization. Menelik’s clemency to Ras Mangasha, whom he compelled to submit and then made hereditary Prince of his native Tigray, was ill repaid by a long series of revolts by that prince. Menelek focused much of his energy on development and modernization of his country after this threat to his throne was firmly ended. He had granted in 1894 a concession for the building of a railway to his capital from the French port of Djibouti but, alarmed by a claim made by France in 1902 to the control of the line in Ethiopian territory, he stopped for four years the extension of the railway beyond Dire Dawa. When in 1906 France, the United Kingdom and Italy came to an agreement on the subject, granting control to a joint venture corporation, Menelek officially reiterated his full sovereign rights over the whole of his empire.

Developments during Menelik's reign[link]

Menelik II was fascinated by modernity, and like Tewodros II before him, had a keen ambition to introduce Western technological and administrative advances into Ethiopia. The Russian support for Ethiopia led to the advent of a Russian Red Cross mission. The Russian mission was a military mission conceived as medical support for the Ethiopian troops. It arrived in Addis Ababa some three months after Menilek's Adwa victory,^[15] and then the first hospital was created in Ethiopia. Following the rush by the major powers to establish diplomatic relations following the Ethiopian victory at Adwa, more and more westerners began to travel to Ethiopia looking for trade, farming, hunting and mineral exploration concessions. Menelik II founded the first modern bank in Ethiopia, the Bank of Abyssinia, introduced the first modern postal system, signed the agreement and initiated work that established the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway with the French, introduced electricity to Addis Ababa, as well as the telephone, telegraph, the motor car and modern plumbing. He attempted unsuccessfully to introduce coinage to replace the Maria Theresa thaler.

According to one persistent tale, Menelik heard about the modern method of executing criminals using electric chairs during the 1890s, and ordered 3 for his kingdom. When the chairs arrived, Menelik learnt they would not work, as Ethiopia did not yet have an electrical power industry. Rather than waste his investment, Menelik used one of the chairs as his throne, sending another to his "second" (Lique Mekwas) Abate Ba-Yalew. Recent research, however, has cast significant doubt on this story, and suggested it was invented by a Canadian journalist during the 1930s.^[16][17]

During a particularly devastating famine caused by Rinderpest early in his reign, Menelik personally went out with a hand-held hoe to furrow the fields to show that there was no shame in plowing fields by hand without oxen, something Ethiopian highlanders had been too proud to consider previously. He also forgave taxes during this particularly severe famine.

Later in his reign, Menelik established the first Cabinet of Ministers to help in the administration of the Empire, appointing trusted and widely respected nobles and retainers to the first Ministries. These ministers would remain in place long after his death, serving in their posts through the brief reign of Lij Iyasu and into the reign of Empress Zauditu. They played a key role in deposing Lij Iyasu.

Private life and death[link]

Taytu Betul, the third wife of Menelik.

In 1864, Menelik married Altash Tewodros, whom he divorced in 1865; the marriage produced no children. In 1865, he married Befana Gatchew, whom he divorced in 1882; the marriage produced no children. Finally, in 1883, he married Taytu Betul, who remained his wife until his death. From 1906, for all intents and purposes, Taytu Betul ruled in Menelik's stead during his infirmity.

Woizero Altash Tewodros was a daughter of Emperor Tewodros II and the first wife of Menelik II. She and Menelik were married during the time that Menelik was held captive by Tewodros. The marriage ended when Menelik escaped captivity abandoning her. She was subsequently remarried to Dejazmatch Bariaw Paulos of Adwa.

Woizero Bafena Gatchew was married to Menelik for seventeen years from 1865 to 1882. Her brother was Zeka Gatchew, the first husband of Empress Taytu Betul. Woizero Bafena was implicated in a plot to overthrow Menelik when he was King of Shewa. She was widely suspected of being secretly in touch with Emperor Yohannes IV in her ambition to replace her husband on the Shewan throne with one of her sons from a previous marriage. With the failure of her plot, Woizero Bafena was separated from Menelik, but Menelik apparently was still deeply attached to her. An attempt at reconciliation failed, but when his relatives and courtiers suggested new young wives to the King, he would sadly say "You ask me to look at these women with the same eyes that once gazed upon Bafena?" Paying tribute both to his ex-wife's great beauty and his own continuing attachment to her.

Empress Taytu Betul was a noblewoman of Imperial blood and a member of one of the leading families of the regions of Semien, Yejju in modern Wollo, and Begemder. Her paternal uncle, Dejazmatch Wube Haile Maryam of Semien, had been the ruler of Tigray and much of northern Ethiopia. She had been married four times previously and exercised considerable influence. Taytu and Menelik were married in a full communion church service and thus fully canonical and insoluble, which Menelik had not had with either of his previous wives. Menelik and Taytu would have no children. Empress Taytu would become Empress consort upon her husband's succession, and would became the most powerful consort of an Ethiopian monarch since Empress Mentewab.

Previous to his marriage to Taytu Betul, Menelik fathered several "natural" children. Three natural children that Menelik recognized were Woizero Shoaregga Menelik, born 1867,^{[nb 7]} Woizero (later Empress) Zauditu Menelik, born 1876,^{[nb 8]} and Abeto Asfa Wossen Menelik, born 1873.

In 1886, Menelik married ten-year-old Zauditu to Ras Araya Selassie Yohannes, the fifteen-year-old son of Emperor Yohannes IV. In May 1888, Ras Araya Selassie died. Woizero Shoaregga was first married to Dejazmatch Wodajo Gobena, the son of Ras Gobena Dachi. They would have a son, Abeto Wossen Seged Wodajo, but this grandson of Menelik II was eliminated from the succession due to dwarfism. In 1892, twenty-five-year-old Woizero Shoaregga was married for a second time to forty-two-year-old Ras Mikael of Wollo. They had two children, a daughter Woizero Zenebework, and Menelik's eventual successor, Lij^{[nb 9]} Iyasu. Woizero Zenebework Mikael would evetually marry at age twelve, the much older Ras Bezabih Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, and died in childbirth a year later. Abeto Asfa Wossen Menelik died when he was about fifteen-years-old. Only Shoagarad has present day descendants.

Rumoured natural children of the Emperor include Ras Birru Wolde Gabriel and Dejazmach Kebede Tessema.^{[citation needed]} The latter, in turn, was possibly the natural grandfather of Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam,^{[citation needed]} the communist leader of the Derg, who eventually deposed the monarchy and assumed power in Ethiopia from 1974 to 1991.

On 27 October 1909, Menelik II suffered a massive stroke and his "mind and spirit died". After that, Menelik was no longer able to reign, and the office was taken over by her highness Empress Taytu.^[18] as de facto ruler, until Ras Bitwaddad Tesemma was publicly appointed regent.^[19] However, he died within a year, and a council of regency — from which the empress was excluded — was formed in March 1910.

1Menilek's mausoleum.^{[nb 10]}

In the early morning hours of 12 December 1913, Nəgusä Nägäst Menelik II died. He was buried quickly without announcement or ceremony^[18] at the Se'el Bet Kidane Meheret Church, on the grounds of the Imperial Palace. In 1916 Menelik II was reburied in the specially built church at Ba'eta Le Mariam Monastery of Addis Ababa.

Succession[link]

After the death of Menelik II, the council of regency continued to rule Ethiopia. As described above, Lij Iyasu had been designated successor of Menelik II by Empress Taytu in May 1909 — however, the imperial Abyssinian rules of succession dictated that only a Christian could rule Ethiopia as Emperor, and Lij Iyasu had taken the Muslim faith. Therefore Lij Iyasu was never crowned Emperor of Ethiopia, and eventually Empress Zewditu I of Ethiopia succeeded Menelik II on the 27 September 1916. She was his oldest daughter.

See also[link]

• Ilemi Triangle
• Paul Merab

Notes[link]

Footnotes

Citations

References[link]

• Lewis, David Levering (1987). The Race to Fashoda: Pawns of Pawns. New York: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 1-55584-058-2. 
• Henze, Paul B. (2000). Layers of Time, A History of Ethiopia. New York: Palgrave. ISBN 0-312-22719-1. 
• Mockler, Anthony (2002). Haile Sellassie's War. New York: Olive Branch Press. ISBN 978-1-56656-473-1. 
• Chris Prouty. Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia 1883-1910. Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986. ISBN 0-932415-11-3
• A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000
• With the Armies of Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia at www.samizdat.com A.K. Bulatovich With the Armies of Menelik II translated by Richard Seltzer

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 
• [1]

External links[link]

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