Television (TV) is the most widely used telecommunication medium for transmitting and receiving moving images that are either monochromatic ("black and white") or color, usually accompanied by sound. "Television" may also refer specifically to a television set, television programming or television transmission. The word is derived from mixed Latin and Greek roots, meaning "far sight": Greek tele (λε}}), far, and Latin visio, sight (from video, vis- to see, or to view in the first person).

Commercially available since the late 1920s, the television set has become ubiquitous in homes, businesses and institutions, particularly as a source of entertainment and news. Since the 1970s the availability of video cassettes, laserdiscs, DVDs and now Blu-ray Discs, have resulted in the television set frequently being used for viewing recorded as well as broadcast material. In recent years Internet television has seen the rise of television available via the Internet, e.g. iPlayer and Hulu.

Although other forms such as closed-circuit television (CCTV) are in use, the most common usage of the medium is for broadcast television, which was modeled on the existing radio broadcasting systems developed in the 1920s, and uses high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the television signal to individual TV receivers.

Broadcast TV is typically disseminated via radio transmissions on designated channels in the 54–890 MHz frequency band.

WRGB claims to be the world's oldest television station, tracing its roots to an experimental station founded on January 13, 1928, broadcasting from the General Electric factory in Schenectady, NY, under the call letters W2XB. It was popularly known as "WGY Television" after its sister radio station. Later in 1928, General Electric started a second facility, this one in New York City, which had the call letters W2XBS, and which today is known as WNBC. The two stations were experimental in nature and had no regular programming, as receivers were operated by engineers within the company. The image of a Felix the Cat doll, rotating on a turntable, was broadcast for 2 hours every day for several years, as new technology was being tested by the engineers.

The first practical use of television was in Germany. Regular television broadcasts began in Germany in 1929 and in 1936 the Olympic Games in Berlin were broadcast to television stations in Berlin and Leipzig where the public could view the games live.

On 2 November 1936 the BBC began transmitting the world's first regular high definition service.

In 1936, Kálmán Tihanyi described the principle of plasma television, the first flat panel system.

Mexican inventor Guillermo González Camarena also played an important role in early television. His experiments with television (known as telectroescopía at first) began in 1931 and led to a patent for the "trichromatic field sequential system" color television in 1940, as well as the remote control.

Although television was first introduced to the general public at the 1939 World's Fair, the outbreak of World War II prevented it from being manufactured on a large scale until after the end of the war. True regular commercial network television programming did not begin in the U.S. until 1948. During that year, legendary conductor Arturo Toscanini made his first of ten TV appearances conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra, and Texaco Star Theater, starring comedian Milton Berle, became television's first gigantic hit show.

Geographical usage

[[Image:TV-introduction-world-map.svg|350px|thumb|Television introduction by country ]]

Timeline of the introduction of television in countries

Content

Programming

Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production the next step is to market and deliver the product to whatever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels:

#Original Run or First Run: a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the producers to do the same. #Broadcast syndication: this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases other companies, TV stations or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers.

First run programming is increasing on subscription services outside the U.S., but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic free-to-air (FTA) elsewhere. This practice is increasing however, generally on digital-only FTA channels, or with subscriber-only first-run material appearing on FTA.

Unlike the U.S., repeat FTA screenings of a FTA network program almost only occur on that network. Also, affiliates rarely buy or produce non-network programming that is not centred around local events.

Funding

[[Image:TV users.svg|thumb|400px|right|Television sets per 1000 people of the world ]]

Around the globe, broadcast television is financed by either government, advertising, licensing (a form of tax), subscription or any combination of these. To protect revenues, subscription TV channels are usually encrypted to ensure that only subscription payers receive the decryption codes to see the signal. Unencrypted channels are known as free to air or FTA.

In 2009 the global TV market represented 1,217.2 million TV households with at least one television, and total revenues of 268.9 billion EUR (declining 1.2% compared to 2008). North America had the biggest TV revenue market share with 39%, followed by Europe (31%), Asia-Pacific (21%), Latin America (8%) and Africa and the Middle East (2%).

Globally, the different TV revenue sources divide into 45 to 50% TV advertising revenues, 40 to 45% subscription fees and 10% public funding.

Advertising

Television's broad reach makes it a powerful and attractive medium for advertisers. Many television networks and stations sell blocks of broadcast time to advertisers ("sponsors") in order to fund their programming.

Market share

This is a Worldwide TV Shipments by Technology as of Q2 2010.

This is Worldwide Flat Panel TV Brand Rankings by Revenue Share as of Q2 2010.

United States

Since inception in the U.S. in 1940, TV commercials have become one of the most effective, persuasive, and popular method of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. During the 1940s and into the 1950s, programs were hosted by single advertisers. This, in turn, gave great creative license to the advertisers over the content of the show. Due to the quiz show scandals in the 1950s, networks shifted to the magazine concept introducing commercial breaks with multiple advertisers. The networks effectively ended advertisers influence over television programming with this introduction.

U.S. advertising rates are determined primarily by Nielsen ratings. The time of the day and popularity of the channel determine how much a television commercial can cost. For example, the highly popular American Idol can cost approximately $750,000 for a thirty second block of commercial time; while the same amount of time for the World Cup and the Super Bowl can cost several million dollars. Conversely, lesser-viewed time slots, such as early mornings and weekday afternoons, are often sold in bulk to producers of infomercials.

In recent years, the paid program or infomercial has become common, usually in lengths of 30 minutes or one hour. Some drug companies and other businesses have even created "news" items for broadcast, known in the industry as video news releases, paying program directors to use them.

Some TV programs also weave advertisements into their shows, a practice begun in film and known as product placement. For example, a character could be drinking a certain kind of soda, going to a particular chain restaurant, or driving a certain make of car. (This is sometimes very subtle, where shows have vehicles provided by manufacturers for low cost, rather than wrangling them.) Sometimes a specific brand or trade mark, or music from a certain artist or group, is used. (This excludes guest appearances by artists, who perform on the show.)

United Kingdom

The TV regulator oversees TV advertising in the United Kingdom. Its restrictions have applied since the early days of commercially funded TV. Despite this, an early TV mogul, Roy Thomson, likened the broadcasting licence as being a "licence to print money". Restrictions mean that the big three national commercial TV channels: ITV, Channel 4, and Five can show an average of only seven minutes of advertising per hour (eight minutes in the peak period). Other broadcasters must average no more than nine minutes (twelve in the peak). This means that many imported TV shows from the US have unnatural breaks where the UK company has edited out the breaks intended for US advertising. Advertisements must not be inserted in the course of certain specific proscribed types of programs which last less than half an hour in scheduled duration; this list includes any news or current affairs program, documentaries, and programs for children. Nor may advertisements be carried in a program designed and broadcast for reception in schools or in any religious service or other devotional program, or during a formal Royal ceremony or occasion. There also must be clear demarcations in time between the programs and the advertisements.

The BBC, being strictly non-commercial is not allowed to show advertisements on television in the UK, although it has many advertising-funded channels abroad. The majority of its budget comes from TV licencing (see below) and the sale of content to other broadcasters.

Ireland

The Broadcasting Commission of Ireland (BCI) () oversees advertising on television and radio within Ireland on both private and state owned broadcasters. Similar to other European countries, advertising is found on both private and state owned broadcasters. There are some restrictions based on advertising, especially in relation to the advertising of alcohol. Such advertisements are prohibited until after 7pm. Broadcasters in Ireland adhere to broadcasting legislation implemented by the Broadcasting Commission of Ireland and the European Union. Sponsorship of current affairs programming is prohibited at all times.

As of October 1, 2009 the responsibilities held by the BCI are gradually being transferred to the Broadcasting Authority of Ireland.

Taxation or license

Television services in some countries may be funded by a television licence or a form of taxation which means advertising plays a lesser role or no role at all. For example, some channels may carry no advertising at all and some very little, including:

Australia (ABC)

Japan (NHK)

Norway (NRK)

Sweden (SVT)

United Kingdom (BBC)

The BBC carries no advertising on its UK channels and is funded by an annual licence paid by all households owning a television. This licence fee is set by government, but the BBC is not answerable to or controlled by government.

The two main BBC TV channels are watched by almost 90 percent of the population each week and overall have 27 per cent share of total viewing. This in spite of the fact that 85% of homes are multichannel, with 42% of these having access to 200 free to air channels via satellite and another 43% having access to 30 or more channels via Freeview. The licence that funds the seven advertising-free BBC TV channels currently costs £139.50 a year (about US$215) irrespective of the number of TV sets owned. When the same sporting event has been presented on both BBC and commercial channels, the BBC always attracts the lion's share of the audience, indicating viewers prefer to watch TV uninterrupted by advertising.

The Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) carries no advertising (except for internal promotional material) as it is banned under the ABC Act 1983. The ABC receives its funding from the Australian Government every three years. In the 2008/09 Federal Budget the ABC received A$1.13 Billion. The funds assist in providing the ABC's Television, Radio, Online and International outputs. The ABC also receives funds from its many ABC Shops across Australia. However funded by the Australian Government the editorial independence of the ABC is ensured through law.

In France and Ireland government-funded channels carry advertisements yet those who own television sets have to pay an annual tax ("la redevance audiovisuelle").

In Japan, NHK is paid for by license fees (known in Japanese as ). The Broadcast Law which governs NHK’s funding stipulates that any television equipped to receive NHK is required to pay. The fee is standardized, with discounts for office workers and students who commute, as well a general discount for residents of Okinawa prefecture.

Subscription

Some TV channels are partly funded from subscriptions therefore the signals are encrypted during broadcast to ensure that only the paying subscribers have access to the decryption codes. Most subscription services are also funded by advertising.

Genres

Television genres include a broad range of programming types that entertain, inform, and educate viewers. The most expensive entertainment genres to produce are usually drama and dramatic miniseries. However, other genres, such as historical Western genres, may also have high production costs.

Popular entertainment genres include action-oriented shows such as police, crime, detective dramas, horror, or thriller shows. As well, there are also other variants of the drama genre, such as medical dramas and daytime soap operas. Science fiction shows can fall into either the drama or action category, depending on whether they emphasize philosophical questions or high adventure. Comedy is a popular genre which includes situation comedy (sitcom) and animated shows for the adult demographic such as South Park.

The least expensive forms of entertainment programming are game shows, talk shows, variety shows, and reality TV. Game shows show contestants answering questions and solving puzzles to win prizes. Talk shows feature interviews with film, television and music celebrities and public figures. Variety shows feature a range of musical performers and other entertainers such as comedians and magicians introduced by a host or Master of Ceremonies. There is some crossover between some talk shows and variety shows, because leading talk shows often feature performances by bands, singers, comedians, and other performers in between the interview segments. Reality TV shows "regular" people (i.e., not actors) who are facing unusual challenges or experiences, ranging from arrest by police officers (COPS) to weight loss (The Biggest Loser). A variant version of reality shows depicts celebrities doing mundane activities such as going about their everyday life (The Osbournes, Snoop Dogg's Father Hood) or doing manual labor (Simple Life).

Social aspects and effects on children

Television has played a pivotal role in the socialization of the 20th and 21st centuries. There are many aspects of television that can be addressed, including media violence research. In 2010 the iPlayer incorporated a social media aspect to its internet television service, including Facebook and Twitter.

Environmental aspects

With high lead content in CRTs, and the rapid diffusion of new, flat-panel display technologies, some of which (LCDs) use lamps which contain mercury, there is growing concern about electronic waste from discarded televisions. Related occupational health concerns exist, as well, for disassemblers removing copper wiring and other materials from CRTs. Further environmental concerns related to television design and use relate to the devices' increasing electrical energy requirements.

See also

Broadcast-safe

Content Discovery Platform

Handheld television

How television works

Satellite television

Information-action ratio

Internet television

List of countries by number of television broadcast stations

List of television manufacturers

List of years in television

Media psychology

Outdoor television

Computer monitor/VDU units

Sign language on television

Technology of television

References

Further reading

Albert Abramson, The History of Television, 1942 to 2000, Jefferson, NC, and London, McFarland, 2003, ISBN 0786412208.

Pierre Bourdieu, On Television, The New Press, 2001.

Tim Brooks and Earle March, The Complete Guide to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows, 8th ed., Ballantine, 2002.

Jacques Derrida and Bernard Stiegler, Echographies of Television, Polity Press, 2002.

David E. Fisher and Marshall J. Fisher, Tube: the Invention of Television, Counterpoint, Washington, DC, 1996, ISBN 1887178171.

Steven Johnson, Everything Bad is Good for You: How Today's Popular Culture Is Actually Making Us Smarter, New York, Riverhead (Penguin), 2005, 2006, ISBN 1594481946.

Jerry Mander, Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television, Perennial, 1978.

Jerry Mander, In the Absence of the Sacred, Sierra Club Books, 1992, ISBN 0871565099.

Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business, New York, Penguin US, 1985, ISBN 0670804541.

Evan I. Schwartz, The Last Lone Inventor: A Tale of Genius, Deceit, and the Birth of Television, New York, Harper Paperbacks, 2003, ISBN 0060935596.

Beretta E. Smith-Shomade, Shaded Lives: African-American Women and Television, Rutgers University Press, 2002.

Alan Taylor, We, the Media: Pedagogic Intrusions into US Mainstream Film and Television News Broadcasting Rhetoric, Peter Lang, 2005, ISBN 3631518528.

External links

A History of Television at the Canada Science and Technology Museum

The Encyclopedia of Television at the Museum of Broadcast Communications

The Evolution of TV, A Brief History of TV Technology in Japan NHK

Television's History – The First 75 Years

Worldwide Television Standards

Global TV Market Data

Television in Color, April 1944 one of the earliest magazine articles detailing the new technology of color television

NEC Lab – NEC Lab is a tool to design a test antennas for television broadcasting.

Category:Video hardware Category:Media formats Category:Performing arts Category:Russian inventions Category:Scottish inventions Category:British inventions Category:American inventions Category:1923 introductions

Caption	Stewart at Photocall at the Crillon Hotel in Paris, France
Birthname	Kristen Jaymes Stewart
Birthdate	April 09, 1990
Birthplace	Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Occupation	Actress
Yearsactive	1999–present
Website	kristenstewart.com
Signature	Kristen Stewart signature.svg90px

Kristen Jaymes Stewart (born April 9, 1990) is an American actress. She is best known for playing Bella Swan in The Twilight Saga. She has also starred in films such as Panic Room (2002), Zathura (2005), In the Land of Women (2007), The Messengers (2007), Adventureland (2009) and The Runaways (2010). She has won various awards in three consecutive years.

Early life

Kristen Stewart was born and raised in Los Angeles, California. She has since completed high school. Then, she had another part in the film The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas as the "ring toss girl". She subsequently appeared in the independent film The Safety of Objects, in which she played the tomboy daughter of a troubled single mother (Patricia Clarkson). Stewart had a major role in the Hollywood film Panic Room, playing the diabetic daughter of a divorced mother (Jodie Foster). The film received generally positive reviews, and Stewart garnered positive notices for her performance. She was nominated for a Young Artist Award for her performance. It was revealed that at about this time in her career, she had to be homeschooled due to her irregular schedule, which was affecting her grades. She said, "I started homeschooling because my teachers were failing me. I think it was just resentment — I made more work for them. But homeschooling is great; you can study what you want, which allows you to get more excited about what you're doing".

Her first starring role followed, in the children's action-comedy Catch That Kid, opposite Max Thieriot and Corbin Bleu. Stewart also played the role of Lila in the thriller Undertow. To date, Stewart's most critically acclaimed role may be in the Showtime television film Speak (2004), based on the novel by Laurie Halse Anderson. Stewart, 13 at the time of filming, played high school freshman Melinda Sordino, who stops almost all verbal contact after being raped. Stewart received great praise for playing the character, who had only a few speaking lines, but kept up a darkly humorous commentary inside her head throughout the film.

In 2005, Stewart appeared in the fantasy-adventure film Zathura, playing the role of Lisa, the irresponsible older sister of two little boys, who turn their house into a spacecraft hurtling uncontrollably in outer space by playing a board game. The film received praise by critics, but Stewart's performance did not garner much media attention, as it was noted that her character is immobilized during most of the film. The film, which is being directed by Stewart's mother, takes place in a dorm of the Los Angeles County Jail, and will feature Stewart as a male character. She has also been cast in the role of Mary Lou in an upcoming film adaptation of Jack Kerouac's cult classic novel On the Road. Shooting began in August 2010.

Personal life

Stewart currently lives in Woodland Hills, Los Angeles. Stewart has expressed a desire to live and work in Australia, saying, "I want to go to Sydney University in Australia. My mom's from there." Apart from acting, she is also interested in attending college in the near future, saying, "I want to go to college for literature. I want to be a writer. I mean, I love what I do, but it's not all I want to do — be a professional liar for the rest of my life." In an interview with Vanity Fair, Stewart stated that she dated Michael Angarano, her co-star from Speak.

Filmography

|- | 1999 || The Thirteenth Year || Girl waiting for drink || Uncredited (film debut) |- | 2000 || ''The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas || Ring toss girl || Uncredited |- | 2001 || The Safety of Objects || Sam Jennings ||Limited release |- | 2002 || Panic Room || Sarah Altman || |- | 2003 || Cold Creek Manor || Kristen Tilson || |- | rowspan="3" | 2004 || Speak || Melinda Sordino || |- | Catch That Kid || Maddy || |- | Undertow || Lila || |- | rowspan="2" | 2005 || Fierce People || Maya Osbourne || Limited release |- | Zathura || Lisa || |- | rowspan="5" | 2007 || The Messengers || Jessica "Jess" Solomon || |- | In the Land of Women || Lucy Hardwicke || |- | The Cake Eaters || Georgia || Limited release |- | Into the Wild || Tracy Tatro || |- | Cutlass || Young Robin || Short film |- | rowspan="3" | 2008 || Jumper || Sophie || Cameo |- | What Just Happened|| Zoe || |- | Twilight|| Bella Swan || |- | rowspan="2" | 2009 || Adventureland || Emily "Em" Lewin || |- | || Bella Swan || |- | rowspan="4" | 2010 || The Yellow Handkerchief || Martine || Limited Release |- | The Runaways || Joan Jett || |- | Welcome to the Rileys || Mallory || |- | || rowspan="1" | Bella Swan || |- | rowspan="2" |2011 || On the Road || Marylou || Post-production |- | | Bella Swan | Filming |- | 2012 | | Bella Swan | Filming

Awards and nominations

|- |2002 || Panic Room || rowspan="4" | Young Artist Awards || Best performance in a feature film- Leading Young Actress || || |- |2003 || Cold Creek Manor || rowspan="3" | Best performance in a feature film- Supporting Young Actress || || |- |2004 || Undertow || || |- |rowspan="2" | 2007 || rowspan="2" | Into the Wild || || |- |Screen Actors Guild Awards || Outstanding performance by a cast in a motion picture || || Entire Cast |- |rowspan="8" | 2008 || rowspan="8" | Twilight || rowspan="2" | MTV Movie Awards || Best Female Performance || || |- |Best Kiss || || Shared with Robert Pattinson |- |rowspan="2" | Teen Choice Awards || Choice Movie Actress Drama || || |- |Choice Movie Liplock || || Shared with Robert Pattinson |- |rowspan="2" | Scream Awards || Best Fantasy Actress || || |- |Best Ensemble Cast || || |- |rowspan="2" | People's Choice Awards || Favourite On-Screen Team || || Shared with Robert Pattinson and Taylor Lautner |- |Favourite Movie Actress || || |- |rowspan="9" | 2009 || Adventureland || Gotham Awards || Best Ensemble cast || || Entire cast |- |rowspan="8" | || BAFTA Awards || Rising Star Award || || |- |rowspan="2" | Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards || rowspan="2" | Cutest Couple || || Shared with Taylor Lautner |- | || Shared with Robert Pattinson |- |rowspan="2" | MTV Movie Awards || Best Female Performance || || |- |Best Kiss || || rowspan="2" | Shared with Robert Pattinson |- |rowspan="2" | Golden Raspberry Awards || rowspan="2" | Worst Screen Couple || |- | || Shared with Taylor Lautner |- |rowspan="2" | Teen Choice Award || Choice Movie Actress Fantasy || || |- |rowspan="5" | 2010 || rowspan="2" | The Runaways || Choice Movie Actress Drama || || |- |MTV Movie Awards || Best Kiss || || Shared with Dakota Fanning |- |rowspan="3" | || rowspan="3" | People's Choice Awards || Favorite Movie Actress || || |- | People's Choice Award for Favourite On-Screen-Team || || Shared with Taylor Lautner and Robert Pattinson |- | People's Choice Award for Favorite Movie Star Under 25 || || |-

References

External links

Kristen Stewart's Changing Style – slideshow by Life magazine

Category:1990 births Category:Actors from Los Angeles, California Category:American child actors Category:American film actors Category:American people of Australian descent Category:American television actors Category:BAFTA winners (people) Category:Living people