The Tigris River is the eastern member of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of southeastern Turkey through Iraq.

Geography

The Tigris is about 1,850 km long, rising in the Taurus Mountains of eastern Turkey about 25 km southeast of the city of Elazig and circa 30 km from the headwaters of the Euphrates River. The river then flows for 400 km through Turkish territory, before becoming the border between Syria and Iraq. This stretch of 44 km is the only part of the river that is located in Syria. The remaining 1,418 km are entirely within the Iraqi borders.

Baghdad, the capital of Iraq, stands on the banks of the Tigris. The port city of Basra straddles the Shatt al-Arab. In ancient times, many of the great cities of Mesopotamia stood on or near the Tigris, drawing water from it to irrigate the civilization of the Sumerians. Notable Tigris-side cities included Nineveh, Ctesiphon, and Seleucia, while the city of Lagash was irrigated by the Tigris via a canal dug around 2400 BC. Saddam Hussein's hometown, Tikrit, is also located on the river and derives its name from it.

The Tigris has long been an important transport route in a largely desert country. It is navigable as far as Baghdad by shallow-draft vessels, but rafts are needed for transport upstream to Mosul. River trade declined in importance during the 20th century as the Basra-Baghdad-Mosul railway and roads took over much of the freight traffic.

Etymology

The original Sumerian name was Idigna or Idigina, probably from *id (i)gina "running water", which can be interpreted as "the swift river", contrasted to its neighbor, the Euphrates, whose leisurely pace caused it to deposit more silt and build up a higher bed than the Tigris. This form was borrowed and gave rise to Akkadian Idiqlat. From Old Persian Tigrā, the word was adopted into Greek as Tigris ("Τίγρις" which is also Greek for "tiger").

Pahlavi tigr means "arrow", in the same family as Old Persian tigra- "pointed" (compare tigra-xauda), Modern Persian têz "sharp". However, it does not appear that this was the original name of the river, but that it (like the Semitic forms of the name) was coined as an imitation of the indigenous Sumerian name. This is similar to the Persian name of the Euphrates, Ufratu, which does have a meaning in Persian, but is still modeled after the Akkadian name Purattu.

Another name for the Tigris, used from the time of the Persian Empire, is Arvand Rud, literally Arvand River. Today the name Arvand Rud is the Persian name for the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers which in Arabic is called Shatt al-Arab.

The name of the Tigris in languages that have been important to the region: , Iraq.]] {|class="wikitable" !Language !Name for Tigris |- |Akkadian | |- |Arabic |, ; حدٌاقل, Ḥudaqil |- |Aramaic |, |- |Armenian |, |- |Greek |, ; , |- |Hebrew |, Biblical |- |Hurrian | |- |Kurdish | |- |Persian |Old Persian:; Middle Persian:; Modern Persian: |- |Sumerian | |- |Syriac | |- |Turkish | |}

Management and water quality

, Iraq.]] The Tigris is heavily dammed in Iraq and Turkey to provide water for irrigating the arid and semi-desert regions bordering the river valley. Damming has also been important for averting floods in Iraq, to which the Tigris has historically been notoriously prone following melting of snow in the Turkish mountains around April.

Recent Turkish damming of the river has been the subject of some controversy, for both its environmental effects within Turkey and its potential to reduce the flow of water downstream. Mosul Dam, located on the Tigris, is the largest dam in Iraq.

Religion and mythology

The Tigris appears twice in the Bible. In the Book of Genesis, the Tigris is the third of the four rivers branching off the river issuing out of the Garden of Eden. Daniel received one of his visions "when I was by that great river the Tigris".

In Sumerian mythology, the Tigris was created by the god Enki, who ejaculated and filled the river with flowing water.

In Hittite and Hurrian mythology, Aranzah (or Aranzahas in the Hittite nominative form) is the Hurrian name of the Tigris River, which was divinized. He was the son of Kumarbi and the brother of Teshub and Tašmišu, one of the three gods spat out of Kumarbi's mouth onto Mount Kanzuras. Later he colluded with Anu and the Teshub to destroy Kumarbi (The Kumarbi Cycle).

See also

Assyria

Cradle of civilization

Euphrates

Ilisu Dam Campaign campaign against a planned dam on Tigris in Turkey

List of places in Iraq

Mesopotamia

Notes

External links

Livius.org: Tigris

Managing the Tigris and Euphrates Watershed

Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law Peace Palace Library

Category:Mesopotamia Category:Rivers of Turkey Category:Rivers of Iraq Category:International rivers of Asia Category:Tigris River Category:Rivers of Syria Category:Fertile Crescent

Name	Reiner Knizia
Caption	Knizia at Essen 2008
Nationality	German
Known for	Game designer

Reiner Knizia () is a prolific German-style board game designer. Born in Germany, he developed his first game at the age of eight. He has a PhD in mathematics, and has been a full-time game designer since 1997, when he quit his job from the board of a large international bank. Knizia has been living in England since 1993.

In addition to being quite prolific, with over 500 published games, he is highly acclaimed as a designer, having won the Deutscher Spiele Preis four times, a Spiel des Jahres (in addition to a Kinderspiel des Jahres and a special award) and numerous other national and international awards. At the Origins Game Fair in 2002 he was inducted into the Gaming Hall of Fame. His games frequently make appearances on various "top games" lists: including the GAMES 100 list, the BoardGameGeek top 100, and the Internet Top 100 Games List. Several gaming conventions host "Kniziathons", which are tournaments dedicated to celebrating Knizia-designed games.

Reiner Knizia started developing games for his play-by-mail game zine Postspillion, founded in 1985. The zine still exists and the game Bretton Woods (also a Reiner Knizia design), which was started in 1987, is still going.

According to Knizia, his best selling game is Lord of the Rings, published in 17 languages with over one million copies sold. However, it is anticipated that his hit game Ingenious, already published in over 20 languages, will soon take top spot.

A number of Knizia designs have been redeveloped for the electronic gaming & console markets. Ingenious (aka Einfach Genial) and Keltis have both appeared in CD-ROM versions; Lost Cities was adapted for Xbox 360 via Xbox Live Arcade. An original game for the Nintendo DS, Dr. Reiner Knizia's Brainbenders was published in 2008; Keltis for the NDS followed in 2009. Knizia has also designed various game applications specifically for the iPhone, including Monumental, Roto and Robot Master.

Publishing philosophy

Reiner Knizia emphasises that he is a game designer, not a game publisher. "Designing games and publishing games are two very different disciplines. The designer creates the original game with its theme, its game system and its principal components, delivering a complete single prototype to the publisher. On the basis of this prototype, the publisher manages the production of the game, and promotes and markets it", explains Knizia. He continues "I concentrate on doing what I do best: designing games. This means that I can only be successful in cooperation with strong and competent publishers who do their job as professionally as I believe I do mine. I am always looking for new publishers all over the world, large or small, in the traditional games market as well as the electronic games market. I have lots of new and unpublished designs waiting for their opportunity to come to life."

Game characteristics

Knizia's games cover a huge range of characteristics: he has designed small two-player card games, children's games, simple games, sophisticated games, and even a live-action roleplaying game.

One element of modern game design that Reiner Knizia has pioneered is abstract theme. Older themed games like Monopoly have traditionally developed their themes by trying to model or emulate the environment or situation they are thematically tied to. So Monopoly has players buying and developing properties as a real developer might. Knizia's thematic game designs tend not to try to model a specific environment, but instead try to invoke the thought and decision-making processes that are key to the theme. For example, his game Medici has a fairly abstract game system of drawing and buying cards which does not try to model any particular environment, but in the game-world the players are always attempting to price risk, the key success factor in the investment banking business in which the Medicis made their fortune. This approach has allowed Knizia to develop games which are comparatively simple but require thoughtful game-play, while still retaining strongly thematic elements.

Using his understanding of principles in mathematics to full effect, pricing and evaluating risk are frequently recurring elements in Reiner Knizia games. Many of his most successful designs use auctions as a vehicle to price risk, as in Ra, Medici, and Modern Art.

Games

Abandon Ship

Amun-Re

* Winner, Deutscher Spiele Preis 2003

Auf Heller und Pfennig (released in English as Kingdoms)

* Winner, Origins Award for Best Abstract Board Game of 2002

Battle Lines

Blue Moon

Blue Moon City

Einfach Genial (released as Ingenious in the US and Mensa Connections in the UK)

* Winner, Schweizer Spielepreis best strategy game 2004

Keltis

* Spiel des Jahres 2008

Lord of the Rings

* Winner, Spiel des Jahres 2001 special prize for best use of literature in a game

Lost Cities

* Winner, International Gamers Award 2000 for Best 2-player strategy game

Medici

Modern Art

* Winner, Deutscher Spiele Preis 1993

* Winner, Finnish Game of the Year 2008

Ra

Samurai

Taj Mahal

* Winner, Deutscher Spiele Preis 2000

* Winner, Essen Feather 2000

Through the Desert

Tigris and Euphrates

* Winner, Deutscher Spiele Preis 1998

Tower of Babel

* Winner, Schweizer Spielepreis best strategy game 2005

Vampire

Wer war's

* Winner, Kinderspiel des Jahres 2008

* Winner, Deutscher Kinderspiele Preis 2008

References

External links

Knizia Games

Knizia@Convivium Semi-official site with full Knizia ludography, downloads, articles & Kniziathon details

Postspillion (includes complete list of games)

Reiner Knizia at Math Genealogy Project

Reiner Knizia by the Numbers, interview with Reiner Knizia, 12 April 2006

Category:Living people Category:Board game designers Category:1957 births

Name	Thor Heyerdahl
Image width	150px
Caption	Thor Heyerdahl
Birth date	October 06, 1914
Birth place	Larvik, Norway
Death date	April 18, 2002
Death place	Colla Micheri, Italy
Nationality	Norwegian
Field	Ethnography Adventure
Alma mater	University of Oslo
Doctoral advisor	Kristine Bonnevie Hjalmar Broch

Thor Heyerdahl (October 6, 1914, Larvik, Norway – April 18, 2002, Colla Micheri, Italy) was a Norwegian ethnographer and adventurer with a scientific background in zoology and geography. Heyerdahl became notable for his Kon-Tiki expedition, in which he sailed 4,300 miles (8,000 km) by raft from South America to the Tuamotu Islands. All his legendary expeditions are shown in the Kon-Tiki Museum, Oslo.

Heyerdahl's youth and personal life

Thor Heyerdahl was born in Larvik, the son of master brewer Thor Heyerdahl and his wife Alison Lyng. As a young child, Thor Heyerdahl showed a strong interest in zoology. He created a small museum in his childhood home, with a Vipera berus as the main attraction. He studied Zoology and Geography at University of Oslo. At the same time, he privately studied Polynesian culture and history, consulting what was then the world's largest private collection of books and papers on Polynesia, owned by Bjarne Kropelien, a wealthy wine merchant in Oslo. This collection was later purchased by the University of Oslo Library from Kropelien's heirs and was attached to the Kon-Tiki Museum research department. After seven terms and consultations with experts in Berlin, a project was developed and sponsored by his zoology professors, Kristine Bonnevie and Hjalmar Broch. He was to visit some isolated Pacific island groups and study how the local animals had found their way there. Just before sailing together to the Marquesas Islands in 1936, he married his first wife, Liv Coucheron-Torp (b. 1916), whom he had met shortly before enrolling at the University, and who had studied economics there. Though she is conspicuously absent from many of his papers and talks, Liv participated in nearly all of Thor's journeys, with the exception of the Kon-Tiki Expedition. The couple had two sons; Thor Jr and Bjørn. The marriage ended in divorce and in 1949 Thor Heyerdahl married Yvonne Dedekam-Simonsen. They in turn had three daughters; Annette, Marian and Helene Elisabeth. This marriage also ended in divorce, in 1969. In 1991 Thor Heyerdahl married for the third time, to Jacqueline Beer (b. 1932).

Fatu Hiva

The events surrounding his stay on the Marquesas, most of the time on Fatu Hiva, were told first in his book På Jakt efter Paradiset (Hunt for Paradise) (1938), which was published in Norway but, following the outbreak of World War II, never translated and largely forgotten. Many years later, having achieved notability with other adventures and books on other subjects, Heyerdahl published a new account of this voyage under the title Fatu Hiva (London: Allen & Unwin, 1974). The story of his time on Fatu Hiva and his side trip to Hivaoa and Mohotani is also related in Green Was the Earth on the Seventh Day (Random House, 1996).

The Kon-Tiki expedition

In the Kon-Tiki Expedition, Heyerdahl and five fellow adventurers went to Peru, where they constructed a pae-pae raft from balsa wood and other native materials, a raft that they called the Kon-Tiki. The Kon-Tiki expedition was inspired by old reports and drawings made by the Spanish Conquistadors of Inca rafts, and by native legends and archaeological evidence suggesting contact between South America and Polynesia. After a 101 day, 4,300 mile (8,000 km) journey across the Pacific Ocean, Kon-Tiki smashed into the reef at Raroia in the Tuamotu Islands on August 7, 1947.

Kon-Tiki demonstrated that it was possible for a primitive raft to sail the Pacific with relative ease and safety, especially to the west (with the wind). The raft proved to be highly maneuverable, and fish congregated between the nine balsa logs in such numbers that ancient sailors could have possibly relied on fish for hydration in the absence of other sources of fresh water. Inspired by Kon-Tiki, other rafts have repeated the voyage. Heyerdahl's book about the expedition, Kon-Tiki, has been translated into over 50 languages. The documentary film of the expedition, itself entitled Kon-Tiki, won an Academy Award in 1951.

Anthropologists continue to believe, based on linguistic, physical, and genetic evidence, that Polynesia was settled from west to east, migration having begun from the Asian mainland. There are controversial indications, though, of some sort of South American/Polynesian contact, most notably in the fact that the South American sweet potato served as a dietary staple throughout much of Polynesia. Heyerdahl attempted to counter the linguistic argument with the analogy that, guessing the origin of African-Americans, he would prefer to believe that they came from Africa, judging from their skin colour, and not from England, judging from their speech.

Heyerdahl's theory of Polynesian origins

Heyerdahl claimed that in Incan legend there was a sun-god named Con-Tici Viracocha who was the supreme head of the mythical fair-skinned people in Peru. The original name for Viracocha was Kon-Tiki or Illa-Tiki, which means Sun-Tiki or Fire-Tiki. Kon-Tiki was high priest and sun-king of these legendary "white men" who left enormous ruins on the shores of Lake Titicaca. The legend continues with the mysterious bearded white men being attacked by a chief named Cari who came from the Coquimbo Valley. They had a battle on an island in Lake Titicaca, and the fair race was massacred. However, Kon-Tiki and his closest companions managed to escape and later arrived on the Pacific coast. The legend ends with Kon-Tiki and his companions disappearing westward out to sea.

When the Spaniards came to Peru, Heyerdahl asserted, the Incas told them that the colossal monuments that stood deserted about the landscape were erected by a race of white gods who had lived there before the Incas themselves became rulers. The Incas described these "white gods" as wise, peaceful instructors who had originally come from the north in the "morning of time" and taught the Incas' primitive forefathers architecture as well as manners and customs. They were unlike other Native Americans in that they had "white skins and long beards" and were taller than the Incas. The Incas said that the "white gods" had then left as suddenly as they had come and fled westward across the Pacific. After they had left, the Incas themselves took over power in the country.

Heyerdahl said that when the Europeans first came to the Pacific islands, they were astonished that they found some of the natives to have relatively light skins and beards. There were whole families that had pale skin, hair varying in color from reddish to blonde. In contrast, most of the Polynesians had golden-brown skin, raven-black hair, and rather flat noses. Heyerdahl claimed that when Jakob Roggeveen first discovered Easter Island in 1722, he supposedly noticed that many of the natives were white-skinned. Heyerdahl claimed that these people could count their ancestors who were "white-skinned" right back to the time of Tiki and Hotu Matua, when they first came sailing across the sea "from a mountainous land in the east which was scorched by the sun." The ethnographic evidence for these claims is outlined in Heyerdahl's book Aku Aku: The Secret of Easter Island.

Heyerdahl proposed that Tiki's neolithic people colonized the then-uninhabited Polynesian islands as far north as Hawaii, as far south as New Zealand, as far east as Easter Island, and as far west as Samoa and Tonga around 500 AD. They supposedly sailed from Peru to the Polynesian islands on pae-paes--large rafts built from balsa logs, complete with sails and each with a small cottage. They built enormous stone statues carved in the image of human beings on Pitcairn, the Marquesas, and Easter Island that resembled those in Peru. They also built huge pyramids on Tahiti and Samoa with steps like those in Peru. But all over Polynesia, Heyerdahl found indications that Tiki's peaceable race had not been able to hold the islands alone for long. He found evidence that suggested that seagoing war canoes as large as Viking ships and lashed together two and two had brought Stone Age Northwest American Indians to Polynesia around 1100 CE, and they mingled with Tiki's people. The oral history of the people of Easter Island, at least as it was documented by Heyerdahl, is completely consistent with this theory, as is the archaeological record he examined (Heyerdahl 1958). In particular, Heyerdahl obtained a radiocarbon date of 400 CE for a charcoal fire located in the pit that was held by the people of Easter Island to have been used as an "oven" by the "Long Ears," which Heyerdahl's Rapa Nui sources, reciting oral tradition, identified as a white race which had ruled the island in the past (Heyerdahl 1958).

Heyerdahl further argued in his book American Indians in the Pacific that the current inhabitants of Polynesia migrated from an Asian source, but via an alternate route. He proposes that Polynesians traveled with the wind along the North Pacific current. These migrants then arrived in British Columbia. Heyerdahl called contemporary tribes of British Columbia, such as the Tlingit and Haida, descendants of these migrants. Heyerdahl claimed that cultural and physical similarities existed between these British Columbian tribes, Polynesians, and the Old World source. Heyerdahl's claims aside, however, there is no evidence that the Tlingit, Haida or other British Columbian tribes have an affinity with Polynesians.

Heyerdahl's theory of Polynesian origins never gained acceptance by anthropologists. Physical and cultural evidence had long suggested that Polynesia was settled from west to east, migration having begun from the Asian mainland, not South America. In the late 1990s, genetic testing found that the mitochondrial DNA of the Polynesians is more similar to people from southeast Asia than to people from South America, showing that their ancestors most likely came from Asia. Easter Islanders are of Polynesian descent.

Anthropologist Robert Carl Suggs included a chapter titled "The Kon-Tiki Myth" in his book on Polynesia, concluding that "The Kon-Tiki theory is about as plausible as the tales of Atlantis, Mu, and 'Children of the Sun.' Like most such theories it makes exciting light reading, but as an example of scientific method it fares quite poorly."

Anthropologist and National Geographic Explorer-In-Residence Wade Davis also criticised Heyerdahl's theory in his book The Wayfinders, which explores the history of Polynesia. Davis says that Heyerdahl "ignored the overwhelming body of linguistic, ethnographic, and ethnobotanical evidence, augmented today by genetic and archaeological data, indicating that he was patently wrong."

Expedition to Rapa Nui

In 1955-1956, Heyerdahl organized the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition to Rapa Nui (Easter Island). The expedition's scientific staff included Arne Skjølsvold, Carlyle Smith, Edwin Ferdon, Gonzalo Figueroa and William Mulloy. Heyerdahl and the professional archaeologists who traveled with him spent several months on Rapa Nui investigating several important archaeological sites. Highlights of the project include experiments in the carving, transport and erection of the notable moai, as well as excavations at such prominent sites as Orongo and Poike. The expedition published two large volumes of scientific reports (Reports of the Norwegian Archaeological Expedition to Easter Island and the East Pacific) and Heyerdahl later added a third (The Art of Easter Island). Heyerdahl's popular book on the subject, Aku-Aku was another international best-seller.

In "Easter Island: the Mystery Solved" (Random House, 1989), Heyerdahl offered a more detailed theory of the island's history. Based on native testimony and archeological research, he claimed the island was originally colonized by Hanau eepe ("Long Ears"), from South America, and that Polynesians Hanua momoko ("Short Ears") arrived only in the mid-16th century; they may have come independently or perhaps were imported as workers. According to Heyerdahl, something happened between Admiral Roggeveen's discovery of the island in 1722 and James Cook's visit in 1774; while Roggeveen encountered white, Indian, and Polynesian people living in relative harmony and prosperity, Cook encountered a much smaller population consisting mainly of Polynesians and living in privation.

Heyerdahl speculates there was an uprising of "Short Ears" against the ruling "Long Ears." The "Long Ears" dug a defensive moat on the eastern end of the island and filled it with kindling. During the uprising, Heyerdahl claimed, the "Long Ears" ignited their moat and retreated behind it, but the "Short Ears" found a way around it, came up from behind, and pushed all but two of the "Long Ears" into the fire.

The boats Ra and Ra II

In 1969 and 1970, Heyerdahl built two boats from papyrus and attempted to cross the Atlantic from Morocco in Africa. Based on drawings and models from ancient Egypt, the first boat, named Ra, was constructed by boat builders from Lake Chad in the Republic of Chad using papyrus reed obtained from Lake Tana in Ethiopia and launched into the Atlantic Ocean from the coast of Morocco. After a number of weeks, Ra took on water after its crew made modifications to the vessel that caused it to sag and break apart. The ship was abandoned and the following year, another similar vessel, Ra II was built by boatmen from Lake Titicaca in Bolivia and likewise set sail across the Atlantic from Morocco, this time with great success. The boat reached Barbados, thus demonstrating that mariners could have dealt with trans-Atlantic voyages by sailing with the Canary Current.

A book, The Ra Expeditions, and a film documentary Ra (1972) were made about the voyages.

Apart from the primary aspects of the expedition, Heyerdahl deliberately selected a crew representing a great diversity in race, nationality, religion and political viewpoint in order to demonstrate that at least on their own little floating island, people could cooperate and live peacefully. Additionally, the expedition took samples of ocean pollution and presented their report to the United Nations.

The Tigris

, Tenerife.]] Heyerdahl built yet another reed boat, Tigris, which was intended to demonstrate that trade and migration could have linked Mesopotamia with the Indus Valley Civilization in what is now modern-day Pakistan. Tigris was built in Iraq and sailed with its international crew through the Persian Gulf to Pakistan and made its way into the Red Sea. After about 5 months at sea and still remaining seaworthy, the Tigris was deliberately burnt in Djibouti, on April 3, 1978 as a protest against the wars raging on every side in the Red Sea and Horn of Africa. In Heyerdahl's open letter to Kurt Waldheim he said in part:

Today we burn our proud ship... to protest against inhuman elements in the world of 1978... Now we are forced to stop at the entrance to the Red Sea. Surrounded by military airplanes and warships from the world's most civilized and developed nations, we have been denied permission by friendly governments, for reasons of security, to land anywhere, but in the tiny, and still neutral, Republic of Djibouti. Elsewhere around us, brothers and neighbors are engaged in homicide with means made available to them by those who lead humanity on our joint road into the third millennium.

To the innocent masses in all industrialized countries, we direct our appeal. We must wake up to the insane reality of our time.... We are all irresponsible, unless we demand from the responsible decision makers that modern armaments must no longer be made available to people whose former battle axes and swords our ancestors condemned.

Our planet is bigger than the reed bundles that have carried us across the seas, and yet small enough to run the same risks unless those of us still alive open our eyes and minds to the desperate need of intelligent collaboration to save ourselves and our common civilization from what we are about to convert into a sinking ship.

In the years that followed, Heyerdahl was often outspoken on issues of international peace and the environment. The Tigris was crewed by eleven men: Thor Heyerdahl (Norway), Norman Baker (USA), Carlo Mauri (Italy), Yuri Senkevich (USSR), Germán Carrasco (Mexico), Hans Petter Bohn (Norway), Rashad Nazar Salim (Iraq), Norris Brock (USA), Toru Suzuki (Japan), Detlef Zoltzek (Germany), Asbjørn Damhus (Denmark).

Heyerdahl's trips to Azerbaijan and other work

Heyerdahl made several visits to Azerbaijan between 1980 and 2000. Heyerdahl has long been fascinated with the rock carvings at Gobustan (about 30 miles west of Baku), having become convinced that their artistic style closely resembles the carvings found in his native Norway. The ship designs, in particular, were regarded by Heyerdahl as similar and drawn with a simple sickle - shaped line, representing the base of the boat, with vertical lines on deck, illustrating crew or, perhaps, raised oars.

Based on this and other published documentation, Heyerdahl proposes that Azerbaijan was the site of an ancient advanced civilization. He believed natives migrated north through waterways to present-day Scandinavia using ingeniously constructed vessels made of skins that could be folded like cloth. When voyagers traveled upstream, they conveniently folded their skin boats and transported them via pack animals. Herodotus also describes such boats from this region in his works of the 5th century BCE.

On this visit to Baku, Heyerdahl lectured at the Academy of Sciences about the history of ancient Nordic Kings. He spoke of a notation made by Snorri, a 13th-century historian, which reads: "Odin (a Scandinavian god who was one of the kings) came to the North with his people from a country called Aser." Heyerdahl claimed that the geographic location of Aser matches the region of contemporary Azerbaijan-"east of the Caucasus mountains and the Black Sea".

"We are no longer talking about mythology," says Heyerdahl, "but of the realities of geography and history. Azerbaijanis should be proud of their ancient culture. It is just as rich and ancient as that of China and Mesopotamia."

Heyerdahl challenged historians and scientists to go beyond the dogmatic medieval view of history that puts Europe in the center of exploration, discovery and settlement of the rest of the world. He believed Europe arrived later in the global scheme of things, and that Azerbaijan may well be one of the very first centers of migration.

In 1995 Thor Heyerdahl wrote: , Azerbaijan]]

Heyerdahl also investigated the mounds found on the Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean. There, he found sun-oriented foundations and courtyards, as well as statues with elongated earlobes. Hedyerdahl believed that these finds fit with his theory of a sea-faring civilization which originated in what is now Sri Lanka, colonized the Maldives, and influenced or founded the cultures of ancient South America and Easter Island. His discoveries are detailed in his book, "The Maldive Mystery."

In 1991 he studied the Pyramids of Güímar on Tenerife and declared that they were not random stone heaps but actual pyramids. He believed that he discovered their special astronomical orientation, claiming that the ancient people who built them were most likely sun worshipers due to the alignment of the pyramids. Heyerdahl advanced a theory according to which the Canaries had been bases of ancient shipping between America and the Mediterranean.

His last project was presented in the book Jakten på Odin, (The Search for Odin), in which he initiated excavations in Azov, near the Sea of Azov at the northeast of the Black Sea. He searched for the remains of a civilization to match the account of Snorri Sturluson in Ynglinga saga, where Snorri describes how a chief called Odin led a tribe, called the Æsir in a migration northwards through Saxland, to Fyn in Denmark settling in Sweden. There, according to Snorri, he so impressed the natives with his diverse skills that they started worshipping him as a god after his death (see also House of Ynglings and Mythological kings of Sweden). Heyerdahl accepted Snorri's story as literal truth. This project generated harsh criticism and accusations of pseudo-science from historians, archaeologists and linguists in Norway, who accused Heyerdahl of selective use of sources, and a basic lack of scientific methodology in his work.

The central claims in this book are based on similarities of names in Norse mythology and geographic names in the Black Sea-region, e.g. Azov and æsir, Udi and Odin, Tyr and Turkey. Philologists and historians reject these parallels as mere coincidences, and also anachronisms, for instance the city of Azov did not have that name until over 1000 years after Heyerdahl claims the æsir dwellt there. The controversy surrounding the search for Odin-project was in many ways typical of the relationship between Heyerdahl and the academic community. His theories rarely won any scientific acceptance, whereas Heyerdahl himself rejected all scientific criticism and concentrated on publishing his theories in popular books aimed at the general public.

Heyerdahl claimed that the Udi ethnic minority in Azerbaijan was the descendants of the ancestors of the Scandinavians. He travelled to Azerbaijan on a number of occasions in the final two decades of his life and visited the Kish church. Heyerdahl's Odin theory was rejected by historians, archaeologists, and linguists.

Heyerdahl was also an active figure in Green politics. He was the recipient of numerous medals and awards. He also received 11 honorary doctorates from universities in the Americas and Europe.

Subsequent years

In subsequent years, Heyerdahl was involved with many other expeditions and archaeological projects. However, he remained best known for his boat-building, and for his emphasis on cultural diffusionism. He died, aged 87, from a brain tumor. After receiving the diagnosis he prepared for dying by refusing to eat or take medication. The Norwegian government granted Heyerdahl the honor of a state funeral in the Oslo Cathedral on April 26, 2002. His cremated remains lie in the garden of his family's home in Colla Micheri.

On the occasion of the 1994 Winter Olympics Heyerdahl was the presenter during the opening and closing ceremonies.

Criticism

Ragnar Kvam, a Norwegian historian, has criticized Heyerdahl's lack of objections to the National Socialist regime. The background of this criticism is that, in February 1938, Heyerdahl, having visited the Marquesas Islands, travelled to Berlin, where he presented himself at Professor Hans Günther's office. Günther, a Nazi race researcher, was delighted to receive from Heyerdahl a skull from a native of the Marquesas Islands. After the meeting, Heyerdahl sent his mother a letter, in which he described Günther as "one of the leading men of the new Reich."

Legacy

Heyerdahl's expeditions were spectacular and caught the public imagination. Although much of his work remains unaccepted within the scientific community, Heyerdahl increased public interest in ancient history and anthropology. He also showed that long distance ocean voyages were possible with ancient designs. As such, he was a major practitioner of experimental archaeology. He introduced readers of all ages to the fields of archaeology and ethnology.

In 1954 William Willis sailed alone from Peru to American Samoa on the small raft named "Seven Little Sisters".

Kantuta Expeditions, a repeated expeditions of Kon-Tiki by Eduard Ingris.

Thor Heyerdahl's grandson, Olav Heyerdahl, retraced his grandfather's Kon-Tiki voyage in 2006, as part of a six-member crew. The voyage, called the Tangaroa Expedition, was intended as a tribute to Thor Heyerdahl, as well as a means to monitor the Pacific Ocean's environment. A film about the voyage is in preparation.

The Thor Heyerdahl Institute was first established in 2000. Thor Heyerdahl himself agreed to the founding of the institute and the institute aims to promote and continue to develop Thor Heyerdahl's ideas and principles. The institute is located in Thor Heyerdahl's birth town in Larvik, Norway.

Thor Heyerdahl's hometown, Larvik started a project in 2007 which aimed to do more to honour the name of Thor Heyerdahl in his birthtown. During the course of a three year project the municipality has, amongst other things, purchased and renovated Thor Heyerdahl's childhood home, arranges a yearly raft regatta in his honour at the end of summer and has started a procress to develop and open a Heyerdahl Centre in the town of Larvik.

Decorations and honorary degrees

, Tenerife.]] Heyerdahl's numerous awards and honors include the following:

Retzius Medal, Royal Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography (1950) Mungo Park Medal, Royal Scottish Society for Geography (1951) Order of Merit, Egypt (1971)

Books

På Jakt efter Paradiset ('Hunt for Paradise'; 1938)

Kon-Tiki: Across the Pacific in a Raft (The Kon-Tiki Expedition: By Raft Across the South Seas)

American Indians in the Pacific: The theory behind the Kon-Tiki Expedition

Aku-Aku: The Secret of Easter Island ISBN 0 14 00 1454 3

Sea Routes to Polynesia

The Ra Expeditions ISBN 014 00 3462 5

Fatu-Hiva: Back to Nature (1974)

Early Man and the Ocean: The Beginning of Navigation and Seaborn Civilizations

The Tigris Expedition: In Search of Our Beginnings

The Maldive Mystery

Green Was the Earth on the Seventh Day: Memories and Journeys of a Lifetime

Pyramids of Tucume: The Quest for Peru's Forgotten City

In the Footsteps of Adam: A Memoir

See also

Asteroid 2473 Heyerdahl is named after the explorer

M/S Thor Heyerdahl, a ferry named after him (Now M/S Vana Tallinn)

HNoMS Thor Heyerdahl, a frigate of the Norwegian Navy's Fridtjof Nansen class frigates named after him

List of notable brain tumor patients

Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact

Reed boat

References

External links

Kon-Tiki Museum

Thor Heyerdahl in Baku

Thor Heyerdahl Biography and Bibliography

Thor Heyerdahl expeditions

the 'Tigris' expedition, with Heyerdahl's war protest

Bjornar Storfjell's account: A reference of his last project Jakten på Odin

Biography on National Geographic

Forskning.no Biography from the official Norwegian scientific webportal (in Norwegian)

Thor Heyerdahl on Maldives Royal Family website

Biography of Thor Heyerdahl

Sea Routes to Polynesia Extracts from lectures by Thor Heyerdahl

The home of Thor Heyerdahl Useful information on Thor Heyerdahl and his hometown, Larvik

Thor Heyerdahl - Daily Telegraph obituary

Category:1914 births Category:2002 deaths Category:Norwegian atheists Category:Norwegian explorers Category:Norwegian scientists Category:Norwegian historians Category:Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact Category:Reed boats Category:Replications of ancient voyages Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav Category:Deaths from brain cancer Category:People from Larvik Category:Cancer deaths in Italy Category:Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters Category:Norwegian ethnographers

Sokratis Malamas (Greek: Σωκράτης Μάλαμας) (b. September 29, 1957 in Sykia in Chalkidiki, Greece) is a Greek singer and songwriter. As of 2010, he is considered one of the most influential songwriters in Greece.

Biography

Sokratis Malamas was born on September 29, 1957 in Sykia in Chalkidiki, Greece. His family moved to Stuttgart, Germany for a few years, he later moved to Thessaloniki. There, he sang bouzouki songs and he learned from his father about his music. At age thirteen, he bought his first guitar and practiced for his presentations at schoolworks and when he was seventeen, he followed his guitar studies at the Macedonian Conservatory of Thessaloniki (Μακεδονικό Ωδείο Θεσσαλονίκης = Makedoniko Odeio Thessalonikis). He returned to Germany after he finished school and later went to the Stuttgart Odeon. In one difficult period of his life, he came back to Greece and attended studies at the National Conservatory of Athens (Εθνικό Ωδείο Αθηνών = Ethniko Odeio Athinon). He was taught by to Vangelis Assimakopoulos and to Notis Mavroudis. At 23, he began his professional career, worked as a guitar teacher and a singer in some public shops. Before he continued into his personal way, he was a guitarist at the orchestra of Nikos Papazoglou.

He continued to play music in public shops, he tried and put his songs on programs. Not until the time that Nikos Papazoglou made him enter the studio and began his first album Aspromavres Istories in 1989. Sokratis Malamas wrote songs for theatrical releases and made his performance in the odeon. His direction of his works was better known and loved his charts.

He performed with famous musicians including Manolis rasoulis, composers including Nikos Xydakis, Melina Kana and more composers including Giannis Tsatsopoulos, Giorgos Athanassopoulos, Alkis Alkaiou, Fotini Lambridis, Thodoros Gonis, Michalis Gkanas, Odysseas Ioannou and Thanasis Papakonstantinou. He also had enough participants of works of famous people including Dionyssis Tsaknis, Maria Thoidou, B.D. Foxmoor and Sadahzinia (of Active Member), Eleftheria Arvanitaki, Thanos Mikroutsikos, Michalis Siganidis, Takis Vouis, Maria Papanikolaou and others.

Malamas also wrote songs and featured them in movies including To Kynigi To Lagou (Το Κυνήγι του Λαγού) and interpreted a song called To Chrono na Lavoso (Το χρόνο να λαβώσω) in a short-length film Ypsoma 33 (Ύψωμα 33) ,

Discography

Aspromavres Istories (1989)

Paramithia (1991)

Tis Meras kai tis Nixtas (1992)

Kyklos (1993)

Lavyrinthos (1996)

13.000 Meres (1998)

O Fylakas kai o Vasilias (2000)

Ena (2002)

Adeio Domatio (2005)

Dromoi (2007)

Ekso (2010)

Productions

1994 - To Fantasma Apo to Parelthon (Το φάντασμα από το παρελθόν) (Akti)

1995 - Stin Andromeda Kai Stin Gi (Στην Ανδρομέδα και στη γη = On Andromeda And On Earth) (Lyra)

1997 - I Gynaika Kai To Milo (Η γυναίκα και το μήλο) (Mylos)

1997 - Pyli Tis Ammou (Πύλη της άμμου = Sand Gate) (Mylos)

1997 - San Petalouda (Σαν πεταλούδα = Like A Butterfly) Virgin

1999 - Me tin Platy ston Tycho (Με την πλάτη στον τοίχο = With The Back On The Wall'')

1999 - Mikres Angelies (Μικρές αγγελίες = Little Tidings)

External links

Songs of Sokratis Malamas (requires cookies)

http://www.malamas.tk/

http://users.hol.gr/~dougas/

http://users.hol.gr/~dougas/htmls/ARTICLES/DIFONO43.htm - courtesy of Trypes

http://perso.wanadoo.fr/ilios/musique/malamas.htm - French

Category:1957 births Category:Living people Category:People from Chalkidiki Category:Greek composers Category:Greek male singers Category:Greek entehno singers Category:Modern Greek-language singers