Coordinates	39°30′06″N86°19′20″N
Name	Coal
Type	Sedimentary
Composition	carbon
Composition secondary	sulfur,hydrogen,oxygen,nitrogen

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock normally occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with variable quantities of other elements, chiefly sulfur, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

Coal begins as layers of plant matter accumulate at the bottom of a body of water. For the process to continue the plant matter must be protected from biodegradation and oxidization, usually by mud or acidic water. The wide shallow seas of the Carboniferous period provided such conditions. This trapped atmospheric carbon in the ground in immense peat bogs that eventually were covered over and deeply buried by sediments under which they metamorphosed into coal. Over time, the chemical and physical properties of the plant remains (believed to mainly have been fern-like species antedating more modern plant and tree species) were changed by geological action to create a solid material.

Coal, a fossil fuel, is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, as well as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide emissions. Gross carbon dioxide emissions from coal usage are slightly more than those from petroleum and about double the amount from natural gas. Coal is extracted from the ground by mining, either underground by shaft mining through the seams or in open pits.

Types

toward the end of the Carboniferous period; the light blue represents shallow seas where many of today's coal deposits are found, as opposed to deeper waters which gave rise to oil-bearing rocks derived from marine species. The ice caps were known to be very large, lowering sea levels extensively by locking up oceanic waters into solid ice, though how large the ice caps became is a matter of debate.]]

As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material over time, under suitable conditions it is transformed successively into

Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial importance as a fuel in some regions, for example, Ireland and Finland. In its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water

Lignite, also referred to as brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively as fuel for electric power generation. Jet is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Iron Age

Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from those of lignite to those of bituminous coal are used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation. Additionally, it is an important source of light aromatic hydrocarbons for the chemical synthesis industry.

Bituminous coal, dense mineral, black but sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material, used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation, with substantial quantities also used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make coke

Steam coal is a grade between bituminous coal and anthracite, once widely used as a fuel for steam locomotives. In this specialized use it is sometimes known as sea-coal in the U.S. Small steam coal (dry small steam nuts or DSSN) was used as a fuel for domestic water heating

Anthracite, the highest rank; a harder, glossy, black coal used primarily for residential and commercial space heating. It may be divided further into metamorphically altered bituminous coal and petrified oil, as from the deposits in Pennsylvania

Graphite, technically the highest rank, but difficult to ignite and is not so commonly used as fuel: it is mostly used in pencils and, when powdered, as a lubricant.

The classification of coal is generally based on the content of volatiles. However, the exact classification varies between countries. According to the German classification, coal is classified as follows: The middle six grades in the table represent a progressive transition from the English-language sub-bituminous to bituminous coal, while the last class is an approximate equivalent to anthracite, but more inclusive (the U.S. anthracite has < 6% volatiles).

Cannel coal (sometimes called "candle coal"), is a variety of fine-grained, high-rank coal with significant hydrogen content. It consists primarily of "exinite" macerals, now termed "liptinite".

Early uses as fuel

s in an illustration of the Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedia, published in 1637]] The earliest reference to the use of coal as fuel is from the geological treatise On stones (Lap. 16) by the Greek scientist Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BC):

Outcrop coal was used in Britain during the Bronze Age (3000–2000 BC), where it has been detected as forming part of the composition of funeral pyres. In Roman Britain, with the exception of two modern fields, "the Romans were exploiting coals in all the major coalfields in England and Wales by the end of the second century AD". Evidence of trade in coal (dated to about AD 200) has been found at the inland port of Heronbridge, near Chester, and in the Fenlands of East Anglia, where coal from the Midlands was transported via the Car Dyke for use in drying grain. Coal cinders have been found in the hearths of villas and military forts, particularly in Northumberland, dated to around AD 400. In the west of England contemporary writers described the wonder of a permanent brazier of coal on the altar of Minerva at Aquae Sulis (modern day Bath) although in fact easily accessible surface coal from what became the Somerset coalfield was in common use in quite lowly dwellings locally. Evidence of coal's use for iron-working in the city during the Roman period has been found. In Eschweiler, Rhineland, deposits of bituminous coal were used by the Romans for the smelting of iron ore. Mineral coal came to be referred to as "seacoal" in the 13th century; the wharf where the material arrived in London was known as Seacoal Lane, so identified in a charter of King Henry III granted in 1253. Initially the name was given because much coal was found on the shore, having fallen from the exposed coal seams on cliffs above or washed out of underwater coal outcrops, In 1257–59, coal from Newcastle was shipped to London for the smiths and lime-burners building Westminster Abbey. (See Industrial processes below for modern uses of the term.)

These easily accessible sources had largely become exhausted (or could not meet the growing demand) by the 13th century, when underground mining from shafts or adits was developed. In 1947, there were some 750,000 miners, but by 2004 this had shrunk to some 5,000 miners working in around 20 collieries.

In ancient China, coal was used as fuel by the 4th century AD, but there was little extensive use until the 11th century.

Uses today

near Helper, Utah.]]

Coal as fuel

Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce electricity and heat through combustion. World coal consumption was about 6,743,786,000 short tons in 2006 and is expected to increase 48% to 9.98 billion short tons by 2030. China produced 2.38 billion tons in 2006. India produced about 447.3 million tons in 2006. 68.7% of China's electricity comes from coal. The USA consumes about 14% of the world total, using 90% of it for generation of electricity.

When coal is used for electricity generation, it is usually pulverized and then combusted (burned) in a furnace with a boiler. The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam, which is then used to spin turbines which turn generators and create electricity. The thermodynamic efficiency of this process has been improved over time. Simple cycle steam turbines have topped out with some of the most advanced reaching about 35% thermodynamic efficiency for the entire process. Increasing the combustion temperature can boost this efficiency even further. Old coal power plants, especially "grandfathered" plants, are significantly less efficient and produce higher levels of waste heat. About 40% of the world's electricity comes from coal, and in 2008 approximately 49% of the United States electricity came from coal. The emergence of the supercritical turbine concept envisions running a boiler at extremely high temperatures and pressures with projected efficiencies of 46%, with further theorized increases in temperature and pressure perhaps resulting in even higher efficiencies.

Other efficient ways to use coal are combined heat and power cogeneration and an MHD topping cycle.

Approximately 40% of the world electricity production uses coal. The total known deposits recoverable by current technologies, including highly polluting, low energy content types of coal (i.e., lignite, bituminous), is sufficient for many years. However, consumption is increasing and maximal production could be reached within decades (see World Coal Reserves, below).

A more energy-efficient way of using coal for electricity production would be via solid-oxide fuel cells or molten-carbonate fuel cells (or any oxygen ion transport based fuel cells that do not discriminate between fuels, as long as they consume oxygen), which would be able to get 60%–85% combined efficiency (direct electricity + waste heat steam turbine). Currently these fuel cell technologies can only process gaseous fuels, and they are also sensitive to sulfur poisoning, issues which would first have to be worked out before large-scale commercial success is possible with coal. As far as gaseous fuels go, one idea is pulverized coal in a gas carrier, such as nitrogen. Another option is coal gasification with water, which may lower fuel cell voltage by introducing oxygen to the fuel side of the electrolyte, but may also greatly simplify carbon sequestration. However, this technology has been criticised as being inefficient, slow, risky and costly, while doing nothing about total emissions from mining, processing and combustion. Another efficient and clean way of coal combustion in a form of coal-water slurry fuel (CWS) was well-developed in Russia (since the Soviet Union time). CWS significantly reduces emissions saving the heating value of coal.

Coking and use of coke

plant, Wales, United Kingdom.]] Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal from which the volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 °C (1,832 °F) so that the fixed carbon and residual ash are fused together. Metallurgical coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. The product is cast iron and is too rich in dissolved carbon,so must be treated further to make steel.

The coke must be strong enough to resist the weight of overburden in the blast furnace, which is why coking coal is so important in making steel by the conventional route. However, the alternative route to is direct reduced iron, where any carbonaceous fuel can be used to make sponge or pelletised iron. Coke from coal is grey, hard, and porous and has a heating value of 24.8 million Btu/ton (29.6 MJ/kg). Some cokemaking processes produce valuable by-products that include coal tar, ammonia, light oils, and "coal gas".

Petroleum coke is the solid residue obtained in oil refining, which resembles coke but contains too many impurities to be useful in metallurgical applications.

Ethanol production

The reaction of coal and natural gas was used by a German manufacturer for Buna rubber: Chemische Werke Huls, at Marl, Germany, and AVCO Corp in the US. Consequently several references had described both Huls Arc Process and AVCO rotating arc reactor. Both reactors are of cylindrical shape and have a rotating electric arc. The cathode is at the cylinder axis, while the anode is on the circumference. As methane gas provided the highest yield, then it is forced with coal powder into a vortex passing through the electric arc for few milliseconds.

Huls Arc Process produced a mixture of acetylene and ethylene gases. The reaction conditions can be varied to determine the needed product. Increasing the Specific Energy Requirement (SER) favors acetylene production, and lower SER is for ethylene:

Enthalpy Change for Ethylene: = 127.34 kJ/mol, while for acetylene: = 301.4 kJ/mol. As a consequence, recent production processes are using conventional heating instead of electric arc.

Hydration of ethylene gas producing ethanol is the most important process for ethanol production. Vapor phase process is the preferred one in which ethylene and steam pass over a catalyst. One of the most accepted catalysts is diatomite impregnated with phosphoric acid.

Gasification

Coal gasification can be used to produce syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H₂) gas. This syngas can then be converted into transportation fuels like gasoline and diesel through the Fischer-Tropsch process. This technology is currently used by the Sasol chemical company of South Africa to make gasoline from coal and natural gas. Alternatively, the hydrogen obtained from gasification can be used for various purposes such as powering a hydrogen economy, making ammonia, or upgrading fossil fuels.

During gasification, the coal is mixed with oxygen and steam (water vapor) while also being heated and pressurized. During the reaction, oxygen and water molecules oxidize the coal into carbon monoxide (CO) while also releasing hydrogen (H₂) gas. This process has been conducted in both underground coal mines and in coal refineries.

: (Coal) + O₂ + H₂O → H₂ + CO

If the refiner wants to produce gasoline, the syngas is collected at this state and routed into a Fischer-Tropsch reaction. If hydrogen is the desired end-product, however, the syngas is fed into the water gas shift reaction where more hydrogen is liberated.

: CO + H₂O → CO₂ + H₂

High prices of oil and natural gas are leading to increased interest in "BTU Conversion" technologies such as gasification, methanation and liquefaction. The Synthetic Fuels Corporation was a U.S. government-funded corporation established in 1980 to create a market for alternatives to imported fossil fuels (such as coal gasification). The corporation was discontinued in 1985.

In the past, coal was converted to make coal gas, which was piped to customers to burn for illumination, heating, and cooking. At present, the safer natural gas is used instead.

Liquefaction

Coal can also be converted into liquid fuels such as gasoline or diesel by several different processes. In the direct liquefaction processes, the coal is either hydrogenated or carbonized. Hydrogenation processes are the Bergius process, the SRC-I and SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes and the NUS Corporation hydrogenation process. In the process of low-temperature carbonization, coal is coked at temperatures between 360 °C (680 °F) and 750 °C (1,380 °F). These temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal tar is then further processed into fuels. Alternatively, coal can be converted into a gas first, and then into a liquid, by using the Fischer-Tropsch process. An overview of coal liquefaction and its future potential is available.

Coal liquefaction methods involve carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in the conversion process. If coal liquefaction is done without employing either carbon capture and storage technologies or biomass blending, the result is lifecycle greenhouse gas footprints that are generally greater than those released in the extraction and refinement of liquid fuel production from crude oil. If CCS technologies are employed, reductions of 5-12% can be achieved in CTL plants and up to a 75% reduction is achievable when co-gasifying coal with commercially demonstrated levels of biomass (30% biomass by weight) in CBTL plants. For most future synthetic fuel projects, Carbon dioxide sequestration is proposed to avoid releasing it into the atmosphere. Sequestration will, however, add to the cost of production. Currently all US and at least one Chinese synthetic fuel projects, include sequestration in their process designs.

Refined coal

Refined coal is the product of a coal-upgrading technology that removes moisture and certain pollutants from lower-rank coals such as sub-bituminous and lignite (brown) coals. It is one form of several pre-combustion treatments and processes for coal that alter coal's characteristics before it is burned. The goals of pre-combustion coal technologies are to increase efficiency and reduce emissions when the coal is burned. Depending on the situation, pre-combustion technology can be used in place of or as a supplement to post-combustion technologies to control emissions from coal-fueled boilers.

Industrial processes

Finely ground bituminous coal, known in this application as sea coal, is a constituent of foundry sand. While the molten metal is in the mould the coal burns slowly, releasing reducing gases at pressure and so preventing the metal from penetrating the pores of the sand. It is also contained in mould wash, a paste or liquid with the same function applied to the mould before casting. Sea coal can be mixed with the clay lining (the "bod") used for the bottom of a cupola furnace. When heated the coal decomposes and the bod becomes slightly friable, easing the process of breaking open holes for tapping the molten metal.

Cultural usage

Coal is the official state mineral of Kentucky and the official state rock of Utah. Both U.S. states have a historic link to coal mining.

Some cultures uphold that children who misbehave will receive only a lump of coal from Santa Claus for Christmas in their stockings instead of presents.

It is also customary and lucky in Scotland and the North of England to give coal as a gift on New Year's Day. It happens as part of First-Footing and represents warmth for the year to come.

Coal as a traded commodity

In North America, Central Appalachian coal futures contracts are currently traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (trading symbol QL). The trading unit is per contract, and is quoted in U.S. dollars and cents per ton. Since coal is the principal fuel for generating electricity in the United States, coal futures contracts provide coal producers and the electric power industry an important tool for hedging and risk management.

In addition to the NYMEX contract, the IntercontinentalExchange (ICE) has European (Rotterdam) and South African (Richards Bay) coal futures available for trading. The trading unit for these contracts is , and are also quoted in U.S. dollars and cents per ton.

The price of coal increased from around $30.00 per short ton in 2000 to around $150.00 per short ton as of September 2008. As of October 2008, the price per short ton had declined to $111.50. Prices further declined to $71.25as of October 2010.

Environmental effects

There are a number of adverse environmental effects of coal mining and burning, specially in power stations including:

Generation of hundreds of millions of tons of waste products, including fly ash, bottom ash, flue gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals

Acid rain from high sulfur coal

Interference with groundwater and water table levels

Contamination of land and waterways and destruction of homes from fly ash spills such as Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill

Impact of water use on flows of rivers and consequential impact on other land-uses

Dust nuisance

Subsidence above tunnels, sometimes damaging infrastructure

Coal-fired power plants without effective fly ash capture are one of the largest sources of human-caused background radiation exposure

Coal-fired power plants shorten nearly 24,000 lives a year in the United States, including 2,800 from lung cancer Coal-fired power plants emit mercury, selenium, and arsenic which are harmful to human health and the environment Release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, which causes climate change and global warming according to the IPCC and the EPA. Coal is the largest contributor to the human-made increase of CO₂ in the air

Economic aspects

Coal liquefaction is one of the backstop technologies that could potentially limit escalation of oil prices and mitigate the effects of transportation energy shortage that will occur under peak oil. This is contingent on liquefaction production capacity becoming large enough to satiate the very large and growing demand for petroleum. Estimates of the cost of producing liquid fuels from coal suggest that domestic U.S. production of fuel from coal becomes cost-competitive with oil priced at around $35 per barrel, (break-even cost). With oil prices as low as around $40 per barrel in the U.S. as of December 2008, liquid coal lost some of its economic allure in the U.S., but will probably be re-vitalized, similar to oil sand projects, with an oil price around $70 per barrel.

In China, due to an increasing need for liquid energy in the transportation sector, coal liquefaction projects were given high priority even during periods of oil prices below $40 per barrel. This is probably because China prefers not to be dependent on foreign oil, instead utilizing its enormous domestic coal reserves. As oil prices were increasing during the first half of 2009, the coal liquefaction projects in China were again boosted, and these projects are profitable with an oil barrel price of $40.

China is by far the largest producer of coal in the world. It has now become the world's largest energy consumer but relies on coal to supply about 70% of its energy needs. An estimated 5 million people work in China's coal-mining industry.

Among commercially mature technologies, advantages for indirect coal liquefaction over direct coal liquefaction are reported by Williams and Larson (2003).

Energy density

The energy density of coal, i.e. its heating value, is roughly 24 megajoules per kilogram.

The energy density of coal can also be expressed in kilowatt-hours, the units that electricity is most commonly sold in, per units of mass to estimate how much coal is required to power electrical appliances. One kilowatt-hour is 3.6 MJ, so the energy density of coal is 6.67 kW·h/kg. The typical thermodynamic efficiency of coal power plants is about 30%, so of the 6.67 kW·h of energy per kilogram of coal, 30% of that—2.0 kW·h/kg—can successfully be turned into electricity; the rest is waste heat. So coal power plants obtain approximately 2.0 kW·h per kilogram of burned coal.

As an example, running one 100-watt lightbulb for one year requires 876 kW·h (100 W × 24 h/day × 365 day/year = 876000 W·h = 876 kW·h). Converting this power usage into physical coal consumption: :$\backslash frac\{876\; \backslash \; \backslash mathrm\{kW\; \backslash cdot\; h\}\}\{2.0\; \backslash \; \backslash mathrm\{kW\}\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash mathrm\{h/kg\}\}\; =\; 438\; \backslash \; \backslash mathrm\{kg\; \backslash \; of\; \backslash \; coal\}\; =\; 966\; \backslash \; \backslash mathrm\{pounds\; \backslash \; of\; \backslash \; coal\}$

It takes 438 kg (966 lb) of coal to power a 100 W lightbulb for one year. One should also take into account transmission and distribution losses caused by resistance and heating in the power lines, which is in the order of 5–10%, depending on distance from the power station and other factors.

Carbon intensity

Commercial coal has a carbon content of at least 70%. Coal with a heating value of 6.67 kWh per kilogram as quoted above has a carbon content of roughly 80%, which is :$\backslash frac\{0.8\; \backslash \; \backslash mathrm\{kg\}\}\{\backslash mathrm\{12\}\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash mathrm\{kg/kmol\}\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{2\}\{30\}\; \backslash \; \backslash mathrm\{kmol\}$ , where 1 mol equals to N_A (Avogadro Number) atoms.

Carbon combines with oxygen in the atmosphere during combustion, producing carbon dioxide, with an atomic weight of (12 + 16 × 2 = 44 kg/kmol). The CO₂ released to air for each kilogram of incinerated coal is therefore :$\backslash frac\{2\}\{30\}\; \backslash \; \backslash mathrm\{kmol\}\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash frac\{44\; \backslash \; \backslash mathrm\{kg\}\}\{\backslash mathrm\{kmol\}\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{88\}\{30\}\; \backslash \; \backslash mathrm\{kg\}\; \backslash approx\; 2.93\; \backslash \; \backslash mathrm\{kg\}$.

This can be used to calculate an emission factor for CO₂ from the use of coal power. Since the useful energy output of coal is about 30% of the 6.67 kWh/kg(coal), the burning of 1 kg of coal produces about 2 kWh of electrical energy. Since 1 kg coal emits 2.93 kg CO₂, the direct CO₂ emissions from coal power are 1.47 kg/kWh, or about 0.407 kg/MJ.

The U.S. Energy Information Agency's 1999 report on CO₂ emissions for energy generation, quotes a lower emission factor of 0.963 kg CO₂/kWh for coal power. The same source gives a factor for oil power in the U.S. of 0.881 kg CO₂/kWh, while natural gas has 0.569 kg CO₂/kWh. Estimates for specific emission from nuclear power, hydro, and wind energy vary, but are about 100 times lower.

Underground fires

There are hundreds of coal fires burning around the world. Those burning underground can be difficult to locate and many cannot be extinguished. Fires can cause the ground above to subside, their combustion gases are dangerous to life, and breaking out to the surface can initiate surface wildfires. Coal seams can be set on fire by spontaneous combustion or contact with a mine fire or surface fire. Lightning strikes are an important source of ignition, the coal continues to burn slowly back into the seam until oxygen (air) can no longer reach the flame front. A grass fire in a coal area can set dozens of coal seams on fire. Coal fires in China burn 109 million tons of coal a year, emitting 360 million metric tons of CO₂. This contradicts the ratio of 1:1.83 given earlier, but it amounts to 2-3% of the annual worldwide production of CO₂ from fossil fuels, or as much as emitted from all of the cars and light trucks in the United States. In Centralia, Pennsylvania (a borough located in the Coal Region of the United States), an exposed vein of coal ignited in 1962 due to a trash fire in the borough landfill, located in an abandoned anthracite strip mine pit. Attempts to extinguish the fire were unsuccessful, and it continues to burn underground to this day. The Australian Burning Mountain was originally believed to be a volcano, but the smoke and ash comes from a coal fire which may have been burning for over 5,500 years.

At Kuh i Malik in Yagnob Valley, Tajikistan, coal deposits have been burning for thousands of years, creating vast underground labyrinths full of unique minerals, some of them very beautiful. Local people once used this method to mine ammoniac. This place has been well-known since the time of Herodotus, but European geographers misinterpreted the Ancient Greek descriptions as the evidence of active volcanism in Turkestan (up to the 19th century, when the Russian army invaded the area).

The reddish siltstone rock that caps many ridges and buttes in the Powder River Basin (Wyoming), and in western North Dakota is called porcelanite, which also may resemble the coal burning waste "clinker" or volcanic "scoria". Clinker is rock that has been fused by the natural burning of coal. In the Powder River Basin approximately 27 to 54 billion tons of coal burned within the past three million years. Wild coal fires in the area were reported by the Lewis and Clark Expedition as well as explorers and settlers in the area.

Production trends

In 2006, China was the top producer of coal with 38% share followed by the USA and India, according to the British Geological Survey.

World coal reserves

The 930 billion short tons of recoverable coal reserves estimated by the Energy Information Administration are equal to about 4,116 BBOE (billion barrels of oil equivalent). The amount of coal burned during 2007 was estimated at 7.075 billion short tons, or 133.179 quadrillion BTU's. This is an average of 18.8 million BTU per short ton. In terms of heat content, this is about of oil equivalent per day. By comparison in 2007, natural gas provided of oil equivalent per day, while oil provided 85,800,000 barrels per day.

BP, in its 2007 report, estimated at 2006 end that there were 909,064 million tons of proven coal reserves worldwide, or 147 years reserves-to-production ratio. This figure only includes reserves classified as "proven"; exploration drilling programs by mining companies, particularly in under-explored areas, are continually providing new reserves. In many cases, companies are aware of coal deposits that have not been sufficiently drilled to qualify as "proven". However, some nations haven't updated their information and assume reserves remain at the same levels even with withdrawals. Collective projections generally predict that global peak coal production may occur sometime around 2025 at 30 percent above current production in the best case scenario, depending on future coal production rates.

Of the three fossil fuels, coal has the most widely distributed reserves; coal is mined in over 100 countries, and on all continents except Antarctica. The largest reserves are found in the USA, Russia, China, India and Australia. Pakistan also has newly discovered large reserves about 185 billion tons.

Note the table below.

{| class="wikitable sortable" align="center" style="text-align:right" |+ Proved recoverable coal reserves at end-2006 (million tonnes (teragrams)) |- ! width="120pt"|Country ! width="100pt"|Bituminous & anthracite ! width="100pt"|SubBituminous & lignite ! width="100pt"|TOTAL ! width="100pt"|Share |- |align="left"|||111,338||135,305||246,643||22.6 |- |align="left"|||0||185,000||185,000||17.0 |- |align="left"|||49,088||107,922||157,010||14.4 |- |align="left"|||62,200||52,300||114,500||12.6 |- |align="left"|||90,085||2,360||92,445||10.2 |- |align="left"|||38,600||39,900||78,500||8.6 |- |align="left"|||48,750||0||48,750||5.4 |- |align="left"|||16,274||17,879||34,153||3.8 |- |align="left"|||28,151||3,128||31,279||3.4 |- |align="left"|||14,000||0||14,000||1.5 |- |align="left"|||0||10,113||10,113||1.1 |- |align="left"|||183||6,556||6,739||0.7 |- |align="left"|||6,230||381||6,611||0.7 |- |align="left"|||3,471||3,107||6,578||0.7 |- |align="left"|||2,094||3,458||5,552||0.6 |- |align="left"|||740||4,228||4,968||0.5 |- |align="left"|||278||3,908||4,186||0.5 |- |align="left"|||0||3,900||3,900||0.4 |- |align="left"|||198||3,159||3,357||0.4 |- |align="left"|||4||2,183||2,187||0.2 |- |align="left"|||200||1,800||2,000||0.18 |- |align="left"|||0||1,354||1,354||0.1 |- |align="left"|||860||351||1,211||0.1 |- |align="left"|||300||300||600||0.1 |- |align="left"|||33||538||571||0.1 |- |align="left"|||200||330||530||0.1 |- |align="left"|||502||0||502||0.1 |- |align="left"|||22||472||494||0.1 |- |align="left"|||479||0||479||0.1 |- |align="left"|All others||4,691||24,111||28,802||3.1 |-class="sortbottom" !TOTAL ||478,771||612,243||1,091,014||100 |}

Major coal producers

The reserve life is an estimate based only on current production levels and proved reserves level for the countries shown, and makes no assumptions of future production or even current production trends. Countries with annual production higher than 100 million tonnes are shown. For comparison, data for the European Union is also shown. {| class="wikitable sortable" align="center" style="text-align:right" |+ Production of Coal by Country and year (million tonnes) |- ! width="120pt"|Country ! width="100pt"|2003 ! width="100pt"|2004 ! width="100pt"|2005 ! width="100pt"|2006 ! width="100pt"|2007 ! width="100pt"|2008 ! width="100pt"|2009 ! width="100pt"|Share ! width="100pt"|Reserve Life (years) |- |align="left"| | 1722.0 | 1992.3 | 2204.7 | 2380.0 | 2526.0 | 2782.0 | 3050.0 | 45.6 % | 38 |- |align="left"| | 972.3 | 1008.9 | 1026.5 | 1053.6 | 1040.2 | 1062.8 | 973.2 | 15.8 % | 245 |- |align="left"| | 375.4 | 407.7 | 428.4 | 447.3 | 478.4 | 521.7 | 557.6 | 6.2 % | 105 |- |align="left"| | 638.0 | 628.4 | 608.0 | 595.5 | 593.4 | 587.7 | 536.8 | 4.6 % | 55 |- |align="left"| | 351.5 | 366.1 | 378.8 | 385.3 | 399.0 | 401.5 | 409.2 | 6.7 % | 186 |- |align="left"| | 276.7 | 281.7 | 298.5 | 309.2 | 314.2 | 326.5 | 298.1 | 4.3 % | 500+ |- |align="left"| | 114.3 | 132.4 | 146.9 | 195.0 | 217.4 | 229.5 | 252.5 | 3.6 % | 17 |- |align="left"| | 237.9 | 243.4 | 244.4 | 244.8 | 247.7 | 250.4 | 250.0 | 3.6 % | 122 |- |align="left"| | 204.9 | 207.8 | 202.8 | 197.2 | 201.9 | 192.4 | 183.7 | 2.6 % | 37 |- |align="left"| | 163.8 | 162.4 | 159.5 | 156.1 | 145.9 | 143.9 | 135.1 | 1.7 % | 56 |- |align="left"| | 84.9 | 86.9 | 86.6 | 96.2 | 97.8 | 111.1 | 101.5 | 1.5 % | 308 |- |-class="sortbottom" ! Total World ! 5,187.6 ! 5,585.3 ! 5,886.7 ! 6,195.1 ! 6,421.2 ! 6,781.2 ! 6,940.6 ! 100 % ! 119 |}

Major coal exporters

Countries with annual export higher than 10 million tonnes are shown. {| class="wikitable sortable" align="center" style="text-align:right" |+ Exports of Coal by Country and year (million short tons) |- ! width="120pt"|Country ! width="100pt"|2003 ! width="100pt"|2004 ! width="100pt"|2005 ! width="100pt"|2006 ! width="100pt"|2007 ! width="100pt"|2008 ! width="100pt"|2009 ! width="100pt"|Share |- |align="left"| | 238.1 | 247.6 | 255.0 | 255.0 | 268.5 | 278.0 | 288.5 | 26.5% |- |align="left"| | 107.8 | 131.4 | 142.0 | 192.2 | 221.9 | 228.2 | 261.4 | 24.0% |- |align="left"| | 41.0 | 55.7 | 98.6 | 103.4 | 112.2 | 115.4 | 130.9 | 12.0% |- |align="left"| | 50.4 | 56.4 | 59.2 | 68.3 | 74.5 | 74.7 | 75.7 | 6.9% |- |align="left"| | 78.7 | 74.9 | 78.8 | 75.8 | 72.6 | 68.2 | 73.8 | 6.8% |- |align="left"| | 43.0 | 48.0 | 51.7 | 51.2 | 60.6 | 83.5 | 60.4 | 5.5% |- |align="left"| | 103.4 | 95.5 | 93.1 | 85.6 | 75.4 | 68.8 | 38.4 | 3.5% |- |align="left"| | 27.7 | 28.8 | 31.2 | 31.2 | 33.4 | 36.5 | 31.9 | 2.9% |- |align="left"| | 6.9 | 11.7 | 19.8 | 23.5 | 35.1 | 21.3 | 28.2 | 2.6% |- |align="left"| | 30.3 | 27.4 | 28.3 | 30.5 | 32.8 | 47.6 | 25.7 | 2.4% |- |align="left"| | 28.0 | 27.5 | 26.5 | 25.4 | 20.1 | 16.1 | 14.6 | 1.3% |- |-class="sortbottom" ! Total ! 713.9 ! 764.0 ! 936.0 ! 1,000.6 ! 1,073.4 ! 1,087.3 ! 1,090.8 ! 100% |}

Major coal importers

Countries with annual import higher than 30 million tonnes are shown.

{| class="wikitable sortable" align="center" style="text-align:right" |+ Imports of Coal by Country and year (million short tons) |- ! width="120pt"|Country ! width="100pt"|2006 ! width="100pt"|2007 ! width="100pt"|2008 ! width="100pt"|2009 ! width="100pt"|Share |- |align="left"| | 199.7 | 209.0 | 206.0 | 182.1 | 17.5% |- |align="left"| | 42.0 | 56.2 | 44.5 | 151.9 | 14.5% |- |align="left"| | 84.1 | 94.1 | 107.1 | 109.9 | 10.6% |- |align="left"| | 52.7 | 29.6 | 70.9 | 76.7 | 7.4% |- |align="left"| | 69.1 | 72.5 | 70.9 | 64.6 | 6.2% |- |align="left"| | 50.6 | 56.2 | 55.7 | 45.9 | 4.4% |- |align="left"| | 56.8 | 48.9 | 49.2 | 42.2 | 4.1% |- |-class="sortbottom" ! Total ! 991.8 ! 1,056.5 ! 1,063.2 ! 1,039.8 ! 100% |}

See also

Asphaltene

Biochar

Carbochemistry

Coal assay

Coal dust

Coal Measure (stratigraphic unit)

Coal phase out

Coal-tar

Coalbed methane

Fluidized bed combustion

Major coal producing regions

Mountaintop removal mining

The Coal Question

World Coal Institute

References

Further reading

External links

Coal explained with coal terms for kids.

Energy KIDS - Coal page from USA's Department of Energy.

European Association for Coal and Lignite

Coal Online - International Energy Agency

World Coal Institute

Category:Coal mining Category:Economic geology Category:Fuels Category:Sedimentary rocks Category:Solid fuels Category:Symbols of Kentucky Category:Symbols of Utah

Coordinates	39°30′06″N86°19′20″N
Name	Joe Manchin
Jr/sr	jr
State	West Virginia
Alongside	Jay Rockefeller
Term start	November 15, 2010
Predecessor	Carte Goodwin
Order2	34th
Office2	Governor of West Virginia
Lieutenant2	Earl Ray Tomblin
Term start2	January 17, 2005
Term end2	November 15, 2010
Predecessor2	Bob Wise
Successor2	Earl Ray Tomblin
Order3	27th
Office3	Secretary of State of West Virginia
Governor3	Bob Wise
Term start3	January 15, 2001
Term end3	January 17, 2005
Predecessor3	Ken Hechler
Successor3	Betty Ireland
Birth date	August 24, 1947
Birth place	Farmington, West Virginia
Party	Democratic Party
Spouse	Gayle Conelly (1967–present)
Children	HeatherJoseph IVBrooke
Residence	Fairmont, West Virginia
Alma mater	West Virginia University (B.S.)
Profession	Energy executive
Religion	Roman Catholic
Website	Senate website
Signature	Joe Manchin Signature.svg

Joseph "Joe" Manchin III (born August 24, 1947) is the junior United States Senator representing West Virginia. Manchin, a Democrat, was Governor of West Virginia from 2005 to 2010. He won the special election in November 2010 to fill the seat of Robert C. Byrd who had died in office; the term ends January 3, 2013.

Early life, education and career

Manchin was born in Farmington, West Virginia, in 1947, the second of five children of Mary (née Gouzd) and John Manchin. His grandparents were Italian and Czechoslovakian immigrants. He graduated from Farmington High School in 1965.

Manchin entered West Virginia University on a football scholarship in 1965; however, an injury during practice ended his football career. He graduated in 1970 with a degree in information management and later became involved in several family-owned businesses.

Early political career

Manchin was elected to the West Virginia House of Delegates in 1982 and then to the West Virginia Senate in 1986, where he served until 1996. He ran for governor in 1996, finishing second to Charlotte Pritt among a large group of candidates in the Democratic primary election. He ran for Secretary of State of West Virginia in 2000, winning easily.

West Virginia governor

Manchin was a member of the National Governors Association, the Southern Governors' Association, the Democratic Governors Association. He also was chairman of the Southern States Energy Board, state's chair of the Appalachian Regional Commission and chairman of the Interstate Mining Compact Commission.

In July 2005, Massey Energy chief executive officer Don Blankenship sued Manchin, alleging that Manchin had violated Blankenship's First Amendment rights by threatening increased government scrutiny of his coal operations due to Blankenship's political activities. Blankenship had poured substantial money into campaigns to defeat a proposed pension bond amendment and oppose the re-election of state Supreme Court Justice Warren McGraw, and he fought against an increase in the severance tax. Soon after defeat of the pension bond amendment, the state Division of Environmental Protection revoked a permit approval for controversial new silos near Marsh Fork Elementary School in Raleigh County. While area residents had complained for some time that the coal operation there endangered their children, Blankenship claimed that the DEP acted in response to his opposition to the bond amendment.

in Denver, Colorado, in his capacity as chair of the Democratic Governors Association.]] During the Sago Mine disaster of early January 2006, Manchin initially appeared to confirm incorrect reports that 12 miners had survived; in actuality only one survived. Manchin later acknowledged that an unintentional miscommunication had occurred with rescue teams within the mine. On February 1, 2006, he ordered a stop to all coal production in West Virginia, pending safety checks, after two more miners were killed in separate accidents. A total of 16 West Virginia coal miners died from mining accidents in early 2006. Manchin's overall handling of the Sago mine incident may have enhanced his popularity. In November 2006, SurveyUSA ranked him as one of the most popular governors in the country with a 74 percent approval rating.

On April 15, 2006, during an Easter visit to U.S. soldiers stationed in Iraq, Manchin generated controversy by posing for photographers while signing two missiles at Balad Air Force Base. One of the messages read, "Sending you to hell, from Almost Heaven, West Virginia." He told the media: "I just thought, 'Hey, these are people doing tremendous harm to our people.' I wanted to send them a little message." After receiving several complaints, Manchin apologized.

U.S. Senate

Committee assignments

Committee on Armed Services

*Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities

*Subcommittee on Readiness and Management Support

*Subcommittee on Strategic Forces

Committee on the Budget

Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions

Committee on Rules and Administration

Manchin was sworn in by Vice President Joe Biden as a U.S. Senator on November 15, 2010, succeeding appointed Senator Carte Goodwin. Before his swearing-in, rumors suggested that the Republican Party was courting Manchin to change parties, although the Republicans later suggested that Manchin was the source of the rumors. Manchin named Democratic strategist Chris Kofinis to be his chief of staff. Kofinis was formerly an adviser to Wesley Clark and John Edwards.

On December 9, 2010, Manchin was the sole Democrat to vote against cloture for the 2011 National Defense Authorization Act, which contained a provision to repeal Don't Ask, Don't Tell. In an interview with The Associated Press, Manchin cited the advice of retired military chaplains as a basis for his decision to vote against repeal. He also indicated he wanted more time to "hear the full range of viewpoints from the citizens of West Virginia."

On December 18, 2010, Manchin was not present for the vote to repeal "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" and the vote on the DREAM Act. The National Republican Senatorial Committee criticized Manchin for attending a family Christmas gathering instead of voting on the sensitive issues.

Political positions

Manchin is seen as a conservative within his party. He opposes abortion, gun control, same-sex marriage, the repeal of Don't Ask, Don't Tell, and the DREAM Act.

Political campaigns

2004 Governor

Manchin announced his intention to challenge incumbent governor Bob Wise in the 2004 Democratic primary election in May 2003, but Wise decided not to seek re-election after a scandal. Manchin won both the primary and general elections by large margins, and his election marked the first time that two people of the same political party followed one another in the West Virginia governor's office since 1964.

2008 Governor

Manchin easily won re-election to a second term in 2008, capturing 70 percent of the vote.

2010 U.S. Senate

at the State Capitol July 2, 2010.]]

Speculation had centered on what Manchin's response would be if U.S. Senator Robert C. Byrd passed away, but Manchin consistently refused to comment on the subject prior to Byrd's death. However, he did state that he would not appoint himself to the position. Senator Robert Byrd died on June 28, 2010. Manchin in his capacity as Governor had the responsibility of appointing a replacement. On July 16, he appointed Carte Goodwin, his 36-year old legal adviser, Goodwin became the youngest U.S. Senator.

A Rasmussen Reports poll found the Manchin leading in the potential 2010 special election for the seat against Congresswoman Shelly Moore Capito and former West Virginia Secretary of State Betty Ireland. On July 20, 2010 Manchin officially announced he would seek the Senate seat. In the Democratic primary on August 28, he defeated former Congressman Ken Hechler. In the general election, he defeated Republican John Raese; the seat is next up for election in November 2012.

Electoral history

}}

Personal life

Manchin has been married since 1967 to the former Gayle Conelly, and they have three children: Heather, Joseph IV, and Brooke.

In 2006 and 2010 Manchin delivered commencement addresses at Wheeling Jesuit University and Davis & Elkins College. He received honorary degrees from both institutions.

Heather Bresch controversy

Manchin's daughter, Heather Bresch, the chief operating officer for pharmaceutical manufacturer Mylan, was awarded an executive M.B.A. by West Virginia University in 2007, though she had completed just 22 of the required 48 credits when she last attended WVU in 1998. The University rescinded the degree in April 2008 after releasing a highly critical report on the awarding of the degree.

In the wake of the scandal, WVU president Michael Garrison, who was a family friend and former classmate of Bresch, and who had worked for Mylan, resigned his post at the University. The provost also resigned though he was allowed to stay on the faculty.

References

External links

U.S. Senator Joe Manchin official U.S. Senate site

Joe Manchin for U.S. Senate official campaign site

;Governor

Profile at the Democratic Governors Association

Inaugural Address of Joseph Manchin III

Manchin Inauguration Ceremony on WV PBS January, 2009

|- |- |- |- |- |-

Category:1947 births Category:American people of Czech descent Category:American politicians of Italian descent Category:American Roman Catholic politicians Category:Aviators from West Virginia Category:Democratic Party United States Senators Category:Governors of West Virginia Category:Living people Category:Manchin family Category:Members of the West Virginia House of Delegates Category:National Rifle Association members Category:People from Marion County, West Virginia Category:Secretaries of State of West Virginia Category:United States Senators from West Virginia Category:West Virginia Democrats Category:West Virginia Mountaineers football players Category:West Virginia State Senators Category:West Virginia University alumni

Coordinates	39°30′06″N86°19′20″N
Name	Rand Paul
Jr/sr	United States Senator
State	Kentucky
Term start	January 3, 2011
Preceded	Jim Bunning
Alongside	Mitch McConnell
Birth date	January 07, 1963
Birth place	Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Occupation	Ophthalmologist
Alma mater	Baylor University(1981–1984)
Religion	Presbyterian
Website	RandPaul2010.com
Residence	Bowling Green, Kentucky
Party	Republican
Spouse	Kelley Ashby Paul (m. 1990)
Relations	Ron PaulCarolyn "Carol" Wells Paul(parents)
Children	William, Robert, and Duncan

Randal Howard "Rand" Paul (born January 7, 1963) is the junior United States Senator for Kentucky. He is a member of the Republican Party. A member of the Tea Party movement, he describes himself as a "constitutional conservative" and a libertarian. He is the son of Republican Congressman and former presidential candidate Ron Paul of Texas and had never previously held political office. Paul first received national attention in 2008 when making political speeches on behalf of his father. Rand Paul is the first United States Senator in history to serve alongside a parent in the U.S. House of Representatives.

A graduate of the Duke University School of Medicine, Paul has been a practicing ophthalmologist in Bowling Green, Kentucky, since 1993, and established his own clinic in December 2007. In 1994, he founded Kentucky Taxpayers United, of which he is still the chairman.

In August 2009, Paul officially announced his candidacy for the United States Senate seat being vacated by retiring Senator Jim Bunning of Kentucky. Paul won the Republican Party's nomination in May 2010, defeating Kentucky Secretary of State Trey Grayson. In the General Election, Paul defeated Kentucky Attorney General Jack Conway on November 2, 2010. As a supporter of the Tea Party movement, Paul has been vocal in advocating for term limits, a balanced budget amendment, and the Read the Bills Act, in addition to the widespread reduction of federal spending and taxation. He has gained prominence for his independent positions on many political issues, often clashing with both Republicans and Democrats.

Early life and education

on 2 October 2010, along with his father, Congressman Ron Paul of Texas, and his son, William Paul.]] Randal Howard Paul was born on January 7, 1963 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to Carol Wells Paul and Ron Paul. Paul's father is a physician and U.S. Representative of Texas's 14th congressional district. The middle child of five, his siblings are Ronald "Ronnie" Paul Jr., Lori Paul Pyeatt, Robert Paul and Joy Paul-LeBlanc. Paul was baptized as an Episcopalian. Although Ron Paul was a fan of Ayn Rand, her name was not the inspiration for Paul's first name; he went by "Randy" while growing up. His wife shortened his name to "Rand".

The Paul family moved from Pittsburgh to San Antonio in 1965, eventually settling in Surfside Beach, Texas in 1968. In 1976, Paul's father was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. Paul attended Baylor University in Waco, Texas from fall 1981 to summer 1984. According to a Senate campaign consultant of Paul's, Paul was enrolled in the honors program at Baylor, and had scored approximately in the 90th percentile on the Medical College Admission Test. During Paul's time at Baylor, he became a member of the NoZe Brotherhood.

Kelley Paul is a freelance writer, and she manages payroll and marketing communications for Paul's surgical practice.

As a member of the Bowling Green Noon Lions Club, Paul founded the Southern Kentucky Lions Eye Clinic to help provide eye surgery and exams for those who cannot afford to pay. In 1999 Paul founded the Non-profit organization National Board of Ophthalmology (NBO).

Political activism

As founder and chairman of the anti-tax organization Kentucky Taxpayers United (KTU) since 1994, Paul regularly presents "taxpayers' friend" awards to state legislators. KTU, which regards itself as nonpartisan, but is criticized for being ideological and conservative, examines legislator records on taxation and spending to inform voters where their own lawmakers stand on the issues. Paul's editorial commentary on behalf of KTU has been published and recognized in the Kentucky Post. Nine of fifteen Northern Kentucky legislators signed the pledge, such as Senator Dick Roeding In 2000, these legislators considered a hotel room tax hike (favored by Governor Paul Patton for helping expand the Dr. Albert B. Sabin Convention Center in nearby Cincinnati), even though the increase might "incur the wrath of Paul's group," as two newspapers put it.

Paul stated that Patton's argument for "revenue recovery" was merely a euphemism for taxes and said that KTU would fight reelection of any pledge-breakers; Adams requested in writing that Paul's group release him from his pledge, stating that it only applied to his first term.

Paul often speaks on his father's behalf, and he and his son William attended the third Republican presidential debate of 2007 in New Hampshire, as well as campaigned door-to-door in the state for his father. At a New Hampshire rally with 250 in attendance (plus 30 members of his own family), Paul repeated a campaign meme by pretending to take a call from Rudy Giuliani during his remarks, and joking that Giuliani needed campaigners and wanted to borrow the Paul family.

On December 16, 2007, the 234th anniversary of the Boston Tea Party, Paul spoke at Faneuil Hall in favor of small government principles, calling for what CNN termed a "modern day revolution." He continued campaigning across the country for his father in 2008, traveling as far as Montana.

2010 Senatorial campaign

Primary campaign

In the beginning of 2009, Paul was the focus of an online grassroots movement to draft him in a bid to replace beleaguered Republican Kentucky senator Jim Bunning. The news of his potential candidacy became a topic of national interest and was discussed in the Los Angeles Times and locally in the Kentucky press. Commenting on Paul's possible candidacy, Congressman Ron Paul noted that "Should Senator Bunning decide not to run, I think Rand would make a great U.S. Senator."

On May 1, 2009, Paul officially confirmed that if Bunning, whose fundraising in 2009 has matched his poor numbers in opinion polling for the 2010 election, declined to seek a third term, he would almost certainly run in the Republican Party primary to succeed him, and formed an exploratory committee soon after, while still promising to stay out of the race if Bunning had ultimately decided to run for re-election. Paul made this announcement on MSNBC's The Rachel Maddow Show, though the news was first broken by a local Kentucky news site.

On July 28, 2009, Bunning announced that he would not run for re-election, after facing insufficient fundraising. This announcement left only Paul and Secretary of State Trey Grayson as the remaining candidates for the Republican nomination, with Paul announcing on August 5, 2009 that he would officially run for the U.S. Senate as a Republican. The announcement was made through a series of national TV events, radio, and other programs, as well as through newspapers in Kentucky.

Early fundraising success

On August 20, 2009, Paul's grassroots planned a moneybomb to kick off his campaign for United States Senate. The official campaign took in $433,509 in 24 hours. According to Paul, This set a new record in Kentucky's political fundraising history in a 24-hour period.

A second "moneybomb" was held on September 23, 2009, to counter a D.C. fundraiser being held for primary opponent Trey Grayson, by 23 Republican United States Senators, 17 of whom voted for the bank bailout. The theme was a UFC "fight" between Paul and "We the People" vs. Trey Grayson and the "D.C. Insiders." The money bomb ended up raising $186,276 for Paul in 24 hours on September 23; bringing Paul's Senate campaign's total raised to over one million. Later in the campaign, Paul claimed his pledge to not take money from lobbyist and Senators who voted for the bailout was only a "primary pledge" and Paul later held a DC fundraiser with the same Senators who were the target of the September 23, 2009 "moneybomb." Paul ended up raising some $3 million during the primary period.

Primary victory

Although Grayson was considered the frontrunner in July 2009, Paul found success characterizing Grayson as a "career politician" and challenging Grayson's conservatism. Paul ran an ad in February that made an issue out of Grayson's September 2008 admission that he voted for Bill Clinton when he was 20 years old. Although the Paul campaign later removed the video from YouTube, Paul's Democratic general election competitor put it back up on October 20 after Paul had taken exception to the Democrat making an issue out of Paul's own college-age actions. James Dobson, a Christian evangelical figure, endorsed Grayson on April 26 based on the advice of what Dobson described as "senior members of the GOP", but on May 3 the Paul campaign announced that Dobson had changed his endorsement to Paul after Paul and some Paul supporters had lobbied Dobson insisting on Paul's social conservative bona fides.

On May 18 Paul won the Republican Senatorial primary by a 23.4% margin, meaning he would face the Kentucky Attorney General Jack Conway, in the November 2 general election.

General campaign

On June 28, 2010, Rand Paul supporters held their first post-primary online fundraising drive, this time promoted as a "money blast."

BP oil spill comments

On May 21, 2010, Paul generated some controversy by characterizing statements made by Obama administration officials regarding the BP oil spill cleanup as sounding "un-American". Paul said: }} Paul may have been referring to a statement by Interior Secretary Ken Salazar, who said "our job is basically to keep the boot on the neck of British Petroleum to carry out the responsibilities that they have, both under the law and contractually to move forward and to stop this spill." Salazar's remark was later slightly misquoted as "boot on the throat" by Press Secretary Robert Gibbs. Gibbs clarified at the same press conference, when asked if this metaphor did not imply hostility to BP, "I think the President accurately conveyed in his remarks yesterday that we are going to do everything humanly possible, and ensure that BP is doing everything humanly possible, to deal with this as comprehensively and as quickly as they can."

Private property and civil rights

Paul criticized the Bowling Green Daily News on May 30, 2002 for supporting the Fair Housing Act. He explained that "a free society will abide unofficial, private discrimination, even when that means allowing hate-filled groups to exclude people based on the color of their skin." On May 19, 2010, Paul stated that he favors 9 out of 10 titles of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, but had he been a senator during 1960s, he would have raised some questions on the constitutionality of Title II of the Act, which prohibits private businesses who provide public accommodations from discriminating on the basis of race, religion, or national origin against their customers, arguing that it infringes upon constitutional freedoms. Paul stated on National Public Radio, "I'm in favor of everything with regards to ending institutional racism". Paul favors community and neighborhood pressure to persuade private businesses, rather than federal laws that he argued might violate the constitution. Paul said he abhors racism, and he would have marched with Martin Luther King Jr. to repeal Jim Crow Laws. Paul's comments on Title II of Civil Rights Act of 1964 stirred controversy Paul later released a statement declaring that he would have voted for the Act and stated "unequivocally ... that I will not support any efforts to repeal the Civil Rights Act of 1964". Paul stating that while he "abhors racism," he doesn't like the idea of the federal government determining who a business may serve. Amid a flurry of controversy, Paul became the first American politician to cancel an appearance on Meet the Press in their 64-year history. Additionally, RNC Chairman Michael Steele, publicly denounced him, saying that Paul's opposition to the Civil Rights Act is a "misplaced" philosophy for the 21st Century.

Paul addressed his feelings about intentions of the legislation relating to public offices, stating that he "overwhelmingly agrees with the intent of the [Civil Rights Act] which was to stop discrimination in the public sphere and halt the abhorrent practice of segregation and Jim Crow laws," and that Constitutional challenges to the law have been settled by the courts.

On May 21, 2010, Paul appeared on The Situation Room and told host Wolf Blitzer that he would have voted for the Civil Rights Act.

Board certification

On June 14, 2010 the Louisville Courier-Journal reported that Paul, who described himself as a "board-certified" ophthalmologist, was not certified by the American Board of Ophthalmology. From 1995 through 2005 Paul had an AMA-recognized certification until it lapsed. Paul is currently certified by the National Board of Ophthalmology, a rival organization founded by Paul himself in 1999 with Paul as president and his wife as vice-president. Paul has said the group has since recertified several hundred ophthalmologists. The National Board of Ophthalmology's mailing address is a UPS Store in Bowling Green, Kentucky; the organization lacks a website, and is not recognized by the American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS).

Paul stated that he founded the National Board of Ophthalmology after a dispute with the American Board of Ophthalmology over recertification requirements. Paul has also explained his decision to let his recognized certification lapse resulting from "the kind of hypocritical power play that I despise and have always fought against." In interviews before the May 2010 Republican Senatorial primary, Paul stated that he was certified by both boards. and that "you vilify me and make it out to sound, 'Oh, ... there's something wrong with him as a physician because he chose not to register (with the American Board of Ophthalmology).'"

Paul has been licensed to practice medicine in Kentucky since 1993, and his license is in good standing with no history of disciplinary action. The Courier-Journal reported: "There is no indication that Paul isn't qualified to practice ophthalmology." a college secret society described as a cross between Yale's Skull & Bones and the Harvard Lampoon. Coverage of the story died down after Paul denied he had kidnapped anyone or forced anyone to take drugs or worship a so-called "Aqua Buddha". However, coverage of the event was subsequently revived in mid-October when Politico ran a new story on the topic, this one quoting articles from a 1983 NoZe newsletter as well as a different classmate's claim that in those days "Randy smoked pot, he made fun of Baptists." Within the week, Paul's opponent ran a TV ad asking why Paul had belonged to a group that had mocked Christianity and Christ and had tied up a woman and made her worship "Aqua Buddha". The story received widespread national media attention after a contentious October 17 debate between Paul and Conway in which the two candidates sparred extensively over the accusations and exchanged many insults. Paul refused to shake his opponent's hand after the debate had concluded.

Endorsements

Paul has secured endorsements from several public figures and political organizations. They include the Downsize DC Foundation, Concerned Women for America, Gun Owners of America, Steve Forbes, FreedomWorks, Club for Growth, James Dobson, Sarah Palin, Jim DeMint, Cathy Bailey, Jim Bunning, Erick Erickson, National Federation of Independent Business, Council for Citizens Against Government Waste, National Right to Life, US Chamber of Commerce, National Vietnam and Gulf War Veterans Coalition, Mike Huckabee, and Tony Perkins/FRC Action PAC.

Political views

Abortion and bioethics

Paul is opposed to abortion and supports a Human Life Amendment and a Life at Conception Act. He also opposes abortion in cases of rape and incest, but supports use of the morning-after pill. He opposes federal funding for abortion.

According to the Paul campaign, Paul received a 100% pro-life score on a Kentucky Right to Life survey and indicated on the survey that he opposed human cloning. This was disputed by Kentucky Right to Life, however, who endorsed Paul's primary opponent instead and claimed that Paul did not, in fact, answer the cloning question.

Campaign finance reform

Paul opposes the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 and has called it a "dangerous piece of legislation". Instead, he supports regulating the contracts given out by Congress and placing limits on corporations receiving government contracts. Paul opposes legislation limiting the amount of money individuals, corporations, and organizations can give to candidates. Additionally, Paul has proposed "mandating a clause in all federal contracts over $1 million that requires the recipient to pledge not to lobby government or contribute to campaigns during the terms of the contract."

Civil liberties

Paul opposes the USA PATRIOT Act, including warrantless searches and breach of individual privacy.

Economics and tax cuts

Paul has been a longtime opponent of the bank and auto industry bailouts.

He also opposes the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 and the Federal Reserve's control of the money supply and interest rates. He has advocated allowing the free market to regulate interest rates, and supports Congress' constitutional role in controlling the money supply. Paul endorses H.R. 1207, the Federal Reserve Transparency Act, a bill, introduced by his father, mandating an audit of the Federal Reserve. Although Paul would abolish the Federal Reserve, he supports transparency and accountability of the semi-private institution. Additionally, Paul opposes inflation and supports "restoring the value of the dollar that has devalued by approximately 95% since the Federal Reserve's inception in 1913".

Paul supports tax cuts and a Balanced Budget Amendment, and has criticized both Republicans and Democrats on deficit spending.

In October 2010 the Kentucky coordinator for Americans For Fair Taxation stated that Paul would "vote for the FairTax", which would replace federal income taxes with a 23% national consumption tax and includes rebate provisions for taxes on all money spent up to the poverty line. The Associated Press confirmed with a representative of the Paul campaign that the statement fairly reflected Paul's position, saying that while he supports tax reform in general, he hasn't committed to the proposal, adding that it is "a little complicated to administer" and that "it would probably work better at the state level than the national."

Education

Paul supports returning control of education to local communities and parents and thus eliminating the federal Department of Education, but he says that some functions of the Department of Education, such as disbursing student loans and Pell Grants, should be transferred to other departments instead of being eliminated. Paul opposes federal regulation of homeschooling.

Energy

Paul supports allowing the free market to compete and dictate which forms of energy to use. He opposes subsidizing energy companies, and would support allowing tax breaks for companies that produce alternative energy such as wind, solar, or geothermal. He has said that subsidizing the energy industry will only add incentive for companies to lobby the federal government.

Health care

Paul opposes federal government involvement in health care. He would repeal the HMO Act of 1973 that "drives a wedge between the patient and [one's] doctor". He believes that government has driven up the cost of health care and causes the quality and coverage to decrease. Paul would support a free market approach to health care, including tax deductions for medical expenses. He opposes federal regulations discouraging businesses from providing coverage. He supports Health Savings Accounts (HSAs). Paul also stated that he does not support such changes for current retirees or people nearing retirement. He opposes birthright citizenship for children of illegal immigrants. Paul has said that courts should review the 14th Amendment, which guarantees citizenship to "all persons born or naturalized in the United States," to conclude whether or not it should apply to the children of illegal immigrants. If court challenges fail, Paul would support a constitutional amendment that would deny citizenship to children of illegal immigrants who are born in the United States.

Medical marijuana

Paul believes the issue of medical marijuana is a states' rights issue and that the federal government should not interfere. In August, the Associated Press reported that Paul said he was opposed to the legalization of marijuana for medicinal purposes,

National defense

Paul supports eliminating issuance of visas to people from nations deemed as terrorist or rogue. He would not vote to close Guantanamo Bay detention camp, and supports trying suspected terrorists in military tribunals. Paul believes that when the United States goes to war, Congress must declare war as mandated by the US Constitution, and says that he would have voted against an invasion of Iraq.

Same-sex marriage

Paul opposes same-sex marriage, but believes the issue should be left to the states to decide.

References

External links

Senator Rand Paul official U.S. Senate website

Official Campaign Website

Category:1963 births Category:American activists Category:American ophthalmologists Category:American political candidates Category:Baylor University alumni Category:Candidates in United States elections, 2010 Category:Duke University alumni Category:Kentucky Republicans Category:Living people Category:People from Bowling Green, Kentucky Category:People from Brazoria County, Texas Category:Physicians from Kentucky Category:Ron Paul Category:Tea Party movement Category:United States Senators from Kentucky

Coordinates	39°30′06″N86°19′20″N
Name	Jeffrey Sachs
Color	lightsteelblue
Birth date	November 05, 1954Detroit, Michigan
Nationality
Alma mater	Harvard University
Institution	Columbia University
Field	Political economics, International Development
Influences	John Maynard Keynes
Opposed	William Easterly, Daron Acemoğlu, Dambisa Moyo
Influenced	Nouriel Roubini, Jared Diamond
Contributions	Shock therapy, Millennium Villages Project

Jeffrey David Sachs (; born November 5, 1954, in Detroit, Michigan) is an American economist and Director of the Earth Institute at Columbia University. One of the youngest economics professors in the history of Harvard University, Sachs became known for his role as an advisor to Eastern European and developing country governments in the implementation of so-called economic shock therapy during the transition from communism to a market system or during periods of economic crisis. Some of his recommendations have been considered controversial. Subsequently he has been known for his work on the challenges of economic development, environmental sustainability, poverty alleviation, debt cancellation, and globalization.

Sachs is the Quetelet Professor of Sustainable Development at Columbia's School of International and Public Affairs and a Professor of Health Policy and Management at Columbia's School of Public Health. He is Special Advisor to United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon, and the founder and co-President of the Millennium Promise Alliance, a nonprofit organization dedicated to ending extreme poverty and hunger. From 2002 to 2006, he was Director of the United Nations Millennium Project's work on the Millennium Development Goals, eight internationally sanctioned objectives to reduce extreme poverty, hunger, and disease by the year 2015.

He has authored numerous books, including The End of Poverty and Common Wealth, both New York Times bestsellers. He has been named one of Time Magazine's "100 Most Influential People in the World" twice, in 2004 and 2005.

Biography

Academic career

Sachs was raised in Oak Park, a suburb of Detroit, Michigan, and graduated from Oak Park High School. He attended Harvard College, where he received his B.A. summa cum laude in 1976. He went on to receive his M.A. and Ph.D. in economics from Harvard, and was invited to join the Harvard Society of Fellows while still a Harvard graduate student. In 1980, he joined the Harvard faculty as an Assistant Professor and was promoted to Associate Professor in 1982. A year later, at the age of 29, Sachs became a Full Professor of economics with tenure at Harvard.

During the next 19 years at Harvard, he became the Galen L. Stone Professor of International Trade, the Director of the Harvard Institute for International Development at the Kennedy School of Government (1995–1999), and the Director of the Center for International Development (1999–2002).

After the Center for International Development failed to attract sustainable funding or broad scholarly involvement, Sachs resigned from Harvard in March 2002 to become the Director of the Earth Institute at Columbia University in New York City. He is currently the Quetelet Professor of Sustainable Development, and he is also a professor for Columbia's Department of Economics and Department of Health Policy and Management. His classes are taught at the School of International and Public Affairs and the Mailman School of Public Health.

Work on post-communist economies

Sachs is known for his work as an economic advisor to governments in Latin America, Eastern Europe, and the former Soviet Union. A trained macroeconomist, he advised a number of national governments in the transition from communism to market economies.

In 1985, Bolivia was undergoing hyperinflation and was unable to pay back its debt to the International Monetary Fund. Sachs, an economic advisor to the Bolivian government at the time, drew up an extensive plan, later known as shock therapy, to drastically cut inflation by liberalizing the Bolivian market, ending government subsidies, eliminating quotas, and linking the Bolivian economy to the US Dollar. After Sachs' plan was implemented, inflation fell from 20,000% per year to 11%, though according to critics, left the country worse off than before due to a rise in unemployment, a fall in industrial output, and a fall in per capita GDP.

In 1990, the Polish government introduced shock therapy to break from communism. Sachs and ex-IMF economist David Lipton advised the rapid conversion of all property and assets from public to private ownership. After initial economic shortages and inflation, prices in Poland eventually stabilized.

In late 1991, the Russian government invited Harvard to give advice on reproducing the Polish experience. Harvard economist Andrei Shleifer advised President Yeltsin on privatization and macroeconomic issues during the early stages of Russia's reforms. Sachs resigned shortly thereafter.

Work on global economic development

More recently, Sachs has turned to global issues of economic development, poverty alleviation, health and aid policy, and environmental sustainability. He has written extensively on climate change, disease control, and globalization, and is one of the world's leading experts on sustainable development.

In his 2005 work, The End of Poverty, Sachs wrote "Africa's governance is poor because Africa is poor." According to Sachs, with the right policies and key interventions, extreme poverty — defined as living on less than $1 a day — can be eradicated within 20 years. India and China serve as examples, with the latter lifting 300 million people out of extreme poverty during the last two decades. Sachs believes a key element to accomplishing this is raising aid from $65 billion in 2002 to $195 billion a year by 2015. He emphasizes the role of geography and climate, with much of Africa suffering from being landlocked and disease-prone. However, he stresses that these problems can be overcome.

Sachs suggests that with improved seeds, irrigation, and fertilizer, the crop yields in Africa and other places with subsistence farming can be increased from 1 ton/hectare to 3-5 tons/hectares. He reasons that increased harvests would significantly increase the income of subsistence farmers, thereby reducing poverty. Sachs does not believe that increased aid is the only solution. He also supports establishing credit and microloan programs, which are often lacking in impoverished areas. Sachs has also advocated the distribution of free insecticide-treated bed nets to combat malaria. The economic impact of malaria has been estimated to cost Africa US$12 billion per year. Sachs estimates that malaria can be controlled for US$3 billion per year, thus suggesting that anti-Malaria projects would be an economically justified investment.

From 2002 to 2006, Sachs was the Director of the UN Millennium Project and Special Advisor to then Secretary-General Kofi Annan on the Millennium Development Goals. Sachs founded the Millennium Villages Project, a plan dedicated to ending extreme poverty in various parts of sub-Saharan Africa through targeted agricultural, medical, and educational interventions. Along with philanthropist Ray Chambers, Sachs founded Millennium Promise, a nonprofit organization, to help the Earth Institute fund and operate the Millennium Villages Project.

Now a Special Advisor to current Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, Sachs is still a leading advocate for the Millennium Development Goals, frequently meeting with foreign dignitaries and heads of state. He has also become a close friend of international celebrities Bono and Angelina Jolie, both of whom have traveled to Africa with Sachs to witness the progress of the Millennium Villages.

Sachs has been a consistent critic of the IMF and its policies around the world. He has blasted the international bankers for what he sees as a pattern of ineffective investment strategies.

Criticisms

One of Sachs' strongest critics is William Easterly, a professor of economics at New York University. Easterly reproached The End of Poverty in his review for The Washington Post, and Easterly's 2006 book White Man's Burden is an even more thorough rebuttal of Sachs' argument that poor countries are stuck in a "poverty trap" from which there is no escape, except by massively scaled-up foreign aid, though Sachs himself has clearly emphasized the need for a complex, multi-faceted, clinical and unique approach to economic development, of which increased and responsible foreign aid is nearly always a necessary but insufficient part. Easterly presents statistical evidence that he claims proves that many emerging markets attained their higher status without large amounts of foreign aid as Sachs proposes. This point is also echoed by the economist Dambisa Moyo who points out that when Sachs was her lecturer at Harvard it was he himself who taught that "the path to long-term development would only be achieved through private sector involvement and free market solutions". She continues "Perhaps what I had not gleaned at that time was that Mr. Sachs' development approach was made for countries such as Russia, Poland and Bolivia, whereas the aid- dependency approach, with no accompanying job creation, was reserved for Africa." Sachs dismissed that view in a reply to PLoS Medicine by saying that only a handful of the MDGs are immeasurable, but Attaran then cited the United Nations' own data analysis (which the UN subsequently blocked from public access) showing that progress on a very large majority of the MDGs is never measured.

Sachs has also been criticized by leftists for having an overly neoliberal perspective on the economy. Nancy Holmstrom and Richard Smith pointed out that, in advising implementation of his shock therapy on the collapsing Soviet Union, Sachs "supposed the transition to capitalism would be a natural, virtually automatic economic process: start by abandoning state planning, free up prices, promote private competition with state-owned industry, and sell off state industry as fast as possible…". They go on to cite the drastic decreases in industrial output over the ensuing years, a nearly halving of the country's GDP and of personal incomes, a doubling of the suicide rate, and a skyrocketing unemployment rate. The Lancet has recently reported that rapid privatization of the Soviet Union caused a 12.8% death rate increase among males in just two years, a claim that The Economist attributed to alcoholism, though The Lancet article attributed the rise in alcoholism to changes in the economy. Canadian activist Naomi Klein argues in her 2007 book that Sachs' Bolivian "success" is not true. In her analysis, the radical reforms pushed by Sachs were neither democratically agreed upon nor achieved without violent state repression and left the majority of Bolivians in worse circumstances.

Accolades and affiliations

Sachs is the recipient of many awards and honors. In 2004 and 2005, he was named one of the 100 Most Influential People in the World by Time Magazine. He was also named one of the "500 Most Influential People in the Field of Foreign Policy" by the World Affairs Councils of America.

In February 2002, Nature Magazine stated that Sachs "has revitalized public health thinking since he brought his financial mind to it." In 1993 he was cited in the New York Times Magazine as "probably the most important economist in the world." In 1994, Time Magazine called him "the world's best-known economist." In 1997, the French magazine Le Nouvel Observateur cited Sachs as one of the world's 50 most important leaders on globalization.

In 2005, he received the Sargent Shriver Award for Equal Justice. In 2007, Sachs was awarded the Padma Bhushan, a high civilian honor bestowed by the Government of India. Also in 2007, he received the Cardozo Journal of Conflict Resolution International Advocate for Peace Award as well as the Centennial Medal from the Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences for his contributions to society.

In September 2008, Vanity Fair magazine ranked Sachs 98th on its list of 100 members of the New Establishment.

In July 2009, Sachs became a member of the SNV Netherlands Development Organisation's International Advisory Board.

Publications

Sachs is the author of hundreds of academic articles and many books, including two New York Times bestsellers: (Penguin, 2005) and Common Wealth: Economics for a Crowded Planet (Penguin, 2008).

He currently writes a monthly foreign affairs column for Project Syndicate, a nonprofit association of newspapers around the world that is circulated in 145 countries. He is also a frequent contributor to major publications such as the Financial Times, Scientific American, and Time Magazine.

Sachs is a frequent contributor to The Huffington Post where he writes commentary about aid issues such as G20 outcomes, as well as addressing his critics such as Dambisa Moyo and William Easterly.

Selected works

Sachs, Jeffrey (2008). Common Wealth: Economics for a Crowded Planet Penguin Press HC ISBN 978-1-59420-127-1

Humphreys, Macartan, Sachs, Jeffrey, and Stiglitz, Joseph (eds.). "Escaping the Resource Curse" Columbia University Press ISBN 978-0-231-14196-3

Sachs, Jeffrey (2005). Penguin Press HC ISBN 1-59420-045-9

Sachs, Jeffrey (2003). Macroeconomics in the Global Economy Westview Press ISBN 0-631-22004-6

Sachs, Jeffrey (2002). A New Global Effort to Control Malaria (Science), Vol. 298, October 4, 2002

Sachs, Jeffrey (2002). Resolving the Debt Crisis of Low-Income Countries (Brookings Papers on Economic Activity), 2002:1

Sachs, Jeffrey (2001). The Strategic Significance of Global Inequality (The Washington Quarterly), Vol. 24, No. 3, Summer 2001

Sachs, Jeffrey (1997). Development Economics Blackwell Publishers ISBN 0-8133-3314-8

Sachs, Jeffrey and Pistor, Katharina. (1997). The Rule of Law and Economic Reform in Russia (John M. Olin Critical Issues Series (Paper)) Westview Press ISBN 0-8133-3314-8

Sachs, Jeffrey (1994). Poland's Jump to the Market Economy (Lionel Robbins Lectures) MIT Press ISBN 0-262-69174-4

Sachs, Jeffrey (1993). Macroeconomics in the Global Economy Prentice Hall ISBN 0-13-102252-0

Sachs, Jeffrey (ed) (1991). Developing Country Debt and Economic Performance, Volume 1 : The International Financial System (National Bureau of Economic Research Project Report) University of Chicago Press ISBN 0-226-73332-7

Sachs, Jeffrey and Warwick McKibbin Global Linkages: Macroeconomic Interdependence and Co-operation in the World Economy, Brookings Institution, June, 277 pages. (ISBN 0-8157-5600-3)

Sachs, Jeffrey (ed) (1989). Developing Country Debt and the World Economy (National Bureau of Economic Research Project Report) University of Chicago Press ISBN 0-226-73338-6

Bruno, Michael and Sachs, Jeffrey (1984), "Stagflation in the World Economy"

Personal

Sachs lives in New York City with his wife Sonia Ehrlich Sachs, a pediatrician. They have three children: Lisa, Adam, and Hannah Sachs.

See also

Gro Harlem Brundtland

Millennium Development Goals

Millennium Promise Alliance

Millennium Villages Project

Shock therapy (economics)

The Earth Institute at Columbia University

United Nations Millennium Project

References

External links

Official

Official Site (Earth Institute, Columbia University)

Earth Institute at Columbia University

Other

A Bridge for the Carmakers (Washington Post, 2008-11-16).

Podcast, University of Sydney, Economics for a Crowded Planet Public lecture, Sydney Ideas, July 14, 2008

Common Wealth: Economics for a Crowded Planet, on BUniverse, Boston University's video lecture archive.

Jeffrey Sach's Reith lectures hosted by the Royal Society in London, during April and May 2007

Article on Jeff Sachs in the Yale Economic Review

Interview on PBS' Commanding Heights

Interview on The Colbert Report, March 2006

Official website of the Sachs for President Draft Committee

Economics for a Crowded Planet (video)

Jeffrey Sachs Charlie Rose interviews

Audio/Video recording of Jeffrey Sachs lecture as part of the University of Chicago World Beyond the Headlines series.

Sachs addresses Harvard Law students in the Harvard Law Record

Asia Society Video: Jeffrey Sachs on Water Security Issues in Asia April 17, 2009

Jeffrey Sachs Speaker Biography on the World Business Forum where Sachs is a featured speaker for the 2009 event

Audio: Jeffrey Sachs in conversation on the BBC World Service discussion show The Forum

Category:1954 births Category:Living people Category:People from Detroit, Michigan Category:People from Oakland County, Michigan Category:International finance economists Category:Development economists Category:American economists Category:Harvard University alumni Category:Harvard University faculty Category:Columbia University faculty Category:United Nations officials Category:Development specialists Category:International development Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan Category:Green thinkers