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This building is located on Dumbastraße behind the Imperial Hotel, between Bösendorferstraße and Karlsplatz. However, because Bösendorferstraße is so small a street, the building is better known as being between Karlsplatz and Kärntner Ring (part of Ringstraße loop). The back of the building faces Canovagasse [Canova lane].
The concert hall was built by the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, on a piece of land given by Emperor Franz Joseph, and it was opened on January 6, 1870. A historic organ was installed in it by the Austrian firm Rieger, in 1907. The Musikverein is famous for its acoustics and is considered to be one of the five finest concert/opera venues in the world. Interestingly, none of these halls was built in the modern era with the application of acoustics science, and, with the partial exception of the horseshoe-shaped Colon, all share a long, tall, and narrow shape. It is the home to the Vienna Philharmonic.
The Große Musikvereinssaal, or Goldene Saal (Golden Hall), is forty-eight metres long, nineteen metres wide, and eighteen metres high. It has 1,744 seats and standing room for 300. Every year, the Vienna New Year's Concert is held here.
Since 2001, the building has been undergoing renovation, and several new rehearsal and concert halls have been installed.
Category:1870 architecture Category:Cultural venues in Vienna Category:Concert halls in Austria Category:Vienna Philharmonic
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| Name | Sidney Samson |
|---|---|
| Background | solo_singer |
| Born | October 02, 1981 |
| Instrument | Keyboard, turntable, computer |
| Genre | Electro House Dutch House |
| Occupation | Disc jockey |
| Label | Spinnin' Records & Ultra Records |
| Url | http://www.sidneysamson.com/ |
Sidney Samson (born 2 October 1981) is a Dutch DJ and dance musician. Samson started DJing at the age of 14, focusing on hip-hop music before working seriously on house music from 1999. He is a resident DJ at The Matrixx, a major Dutch nightclub and released "Bring That Beat Back" and "It’s all funked up" on the digidance and Spinnin' Records labels respectively. After collaborating with Gregor Salto, he formed his own record label, Samsobeats, in 2007.
Samson managed to get his debut single "Riverside" to #8 on the Dutch Top 40, #10 on the Australian ARIA Charts, #3 on the Irish Singles Chart, and #2 on the UK Singles Chart.
He released his second single "Shut Up and Let It Go" (featuring Lady Bee) in February 2010.
Category:1981 births Category:Living people Category:Dutch DJs Category:Dutch pop singers
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| Name | Lil Wayne |
|---|---|
| Background | solo_singer |
| Birth name | Dwayne Michael Carter, Jr. |
| Born | September 27, 1982New Orleans, Louisiana, United States |
| Instrument | Vocals, Guitars |
Obama also mentioned listening to Lil Wayne on his iPod:
; Studio albums
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| Name | Kevin Rudolf |
|---|---|
| Born | February 17, 1983 |
| Background | solo_singer |
| Origin | Miami, Florida, United States |
| Genre | Hip hop, rock, pop |
| Occupation | Singer, record producer, songwriter |
| Instrument | Vocals, guitar, keyboards |
| Years active | 2001–present |
| Label | Cash Money, Universal Republic |
| Associated acts | Lifehouse, Lil Wayne, Birdman, Timbaland, Jay Sean |
| Url | www.kevinrudolf.com |
Category:1983 births Category:2000s singers Category:2010s singers Category:Cash Money Records artists Category:Rap rock musicians Category:American male singers Category:American pop rock singers Category:American rock singer-songwriters Category:American rock guitarists Category:American record producers Category:Musicians from Miami, Florida Category:Singers from New York City Category:Living people
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| Name | Jay Sean |
|---|---|
| Background | solo_singer |
| Birth name | Kamaljit Singh Jhooti |
| Alias | Jay Sean |
| Born | March 26, 1981Harlesden, Brent, London, England |
| Instrument | Guitar, piano |
| Genre | Pop, R&B;, hip hop, bhangra |
| Occupation | Singer–songwriter, rapper, beatboxer, record producer, arranger |
| Years active | 2003–present |
| Label | Relentless, Virgin, 2Point9, Jayded, Cash Money, Universal Republic, Island |
| Associated acts | Birdman, Craig David, Drake, Kevin Rudolf, Lil Jon, Lil Wayne, Sean Paul, Sway, Thara, Keisha Buchanan |
| Url |
He was a student at Latymer Upper School, the same private school that Hugh Grant, Heston Blumenthal and Lily Cole had attended. He left the school in 1997. His second single, "Eyes on You," was his first solo effort and became a Top 10 hit, peaking at #6. and Hong Kong.
He recorded a 16 track album which was scrapped because Virgin felt the market had changed to where it was all about Pop music. A Mandarin Chinese cover version of "Maybe" by Coco Lee has been released in China. Sean sang a Hindi version of the album My Own Way for release in India. The album sold more than 350,000 copies across the world. making the song the best-selling single by a British/European male artist in North America since Elton John's "Candle in the Wind" in 1997. breaking "a three-week streak of no titles moving into the top 10" since December 2009. Like its predecessor, it has sold more than a million copies in the United States.
At the 2009 UK Asian Music Awards (AMA), Jay Sean won three awards, including "Best Male", "Best Urban Act" and "Best Album", the latter for his second album, My Own Way. He met with Rishi Rich, Juggy D and H-Dhami during the ceremony. On 11 December 2009, he became the first South Asian origin artist since Freddie Mercury to perform at Madison Square Garden, as part of the Jingle Ball concert, alongside beatboxer MC Zani.
Category:Cash Money Records artists Category:Year of birth missing (living people) Category:Living people Category:Old Latymerians Category:English male singers Category:English pop singers Category:English rhythm and blues singers Category:English singer-songwriters Category:English rappers Category:English record producers Category:Beatboxers Category:Musicians from London Category:English Sikhs Category:Bhangra Category:People from Hounslow Category:People from Southall Category:Punjabi people Category:Punjabi-language singers
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| Name | Ewan Pearson |
|---|---|
| Background | non_performing_personnel |
| Alias | Maas, Sulky Pup, Villa America, World of Apples, Dirtbox |
| Born | April 01, 1972 |
| Genre | Electronic |
| Occupation | Producer, Remixer |
| Label | Soma |
| Url | EwanPearson.com |
Category:Living people Category:1972 births Category:Club DJs Category:Alumni of Girton College, Cambridge Category:English electronic musicians Category:English DJs Category:Remixers Category:English record producers Category:English dance musicians Category:People from Kidderminster
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| Name | Dutch Mantel |
|---|---|
| Names | "Dirty" Dutch MantelDutch BassDutch MantelTexas DirtUncle ZebekiahChris Gallagher"Oil Trough, Texas" |
| Debut | 1973 |
Mantel was instrumental in the careers of several huge wrestling stars of the nineties, including the Blade Runners, who later went on to achieve notoriety as Sting and the Ultimate Warrior. The Undertaker and Kane both were early recipients of Mantel's astute wrestling knowledge, which served them well in their careers. Mantel also is credited with giving Steve Austin his stage surname, since Austin's real name at the time was Steve Williams (which was currently in use in wrestling by "Dr. Death" Steve Williams). Mantell originally considered giving Austin the stage names of either "Stevie Rage" or "William Stevenson III".
Mantel formed several tag teams throughout his career, including The Kansas Jayhawks (with Bobby Jaggers), and The Desperados, which lasted only two months. Mantel achieved his greatest notoriety in 1979 when he and then-partner, Cowboy Frankie Lane, as Los Vaqueros Locos, sold out the 16,000-seat Hiram Bithorn Stadium in San Juan, Puerto Rico for an unprecedented nine weeks in a row, a record that still stands. They had a unique gimmick, where they put US$1,000 on stake (all on US$1 and 50 cents coins) to the team that defeat them.
Mantel's other notable achievement was in 1982 when he and Jerry "the King" Lawler faced off in a good guy vs. good guy series. Fans were torn between these two stalwarts of the Memphis ring wars. Mantell achieved what no other opponent could do in when Lawler was a good guy and that was to get a clear cut win over the King. Later that year after Lawler lost a loser leave town match against Bill "Superstar" Dundee, Lawler and Mantell finally mended their ways long enough to face Dundee and Buddy Landel in a Falls Don't Count in Memphis' Mid South Coliseum in front of a sold out red hot Memphis crowd. The match went a record 26 falls taking an hour and 15 minutes to accomphish. Match saw Dutch Mantell taking the pin fall over Landel.
In 1990, he worked for World Championship Wrestling (WCW) as a commentator on WCW Worldwide alongside Tony Schiavone and in 1991, WCW created a stable known as "the Desperados" consisting of Dutch Mantell, Black Bart, and Deadeye Dick. The Desperados were packaged with the gimmick of being three bumbling cowboys looking to meet up with Stan Hansen to go to WCW and become a team. Over the course of a few months, they were promoted through a series of vignettes by which they would be beaten up in saloons, searching ghost towns, and riding horses. Hansen reportedly wanted no part of the storyline and left for Japan, never to return to wrestle in North America. Without Hansen, the group were pushed into service as jobbers and were dissolved as a stable before the end of the year.
When Jim Cornette's independent wrestling promotion Smoky Mountain Wrestling opened in 1991, Mantel, joined by Bob Caudle, served as the original color commentator for the television broadcasts, and would give something of a heel perspective. He also hosted a weekly talk segment called "Down and Dirty With Dutch," where he would interview the stars of SMW. He remained with Smoky Mountain until around 1994.
In the 1990s, Mantel appeared in the World Wrestling Federation as "Uncle Zeb." He was the manager of The Blu Brothers and, later, Justin "Hawk" Bradshaw. Mantel later joined the Puerto Rican International Wrestling Association as a creative consultant, which included writing/producing and booking four hours of original TV programming per week. Mantel remained there until September 22, 2003. Mantel set a record while in Puerto Rico, in the number of hours that a single writer produced a TV wrestling show as he was responsible for four hours a week, 52 weeks a year, for a total of 208 hours a year for five years straight. His ratings also set records as his shows regularly ranged in the 12 to 15 range, with his highest being an 18.1, with a 55 share of the TV viewing audience while working for WWC in 2000. Mantel was awarded the 2002 Wrestling Observer Newsletter award of Booker of the Year for his dual achievements of drawing huge crowds to IWA big stadium shows (12 to 15 thousand fans) and for his ratings successes on Puerto Rican TV, which equaled prime time numbers, even though the show aired on weekend afternoons.
Since 2003, Mantel has worked behind the scenes as a writer/producer/agent for TNA Total Nonstop Action Wrestling, most recently as a full time member of the booking team, which includes Vince Russo and Jeff Jarrett. Mantel is most recently noted for the creation of the TNA women's divisions, the TNA Knockouts, who have reinvigorated interest in women's wrestling in the United States . Mantel is given credit for bringing Awesome Kong to TNA at Bound for Glory 2007, and also inventing Kong's handler/manageress, Raisha Saeed. As of July 31, 2009 Mantel was released from TNA.He is now once again working as a writer for the IWA in Puerto Rico
In November 2009, Reno Riggins, announced that Dutch would be joining Showtime All-Star Wrestling base out of Nashville as a writer and on air talent.
In December 2009, Mantel released his first book, "The World According To Dutch." Mantel wrote the book in around 15 days, with assist from editors Ric Gross and Mark James. The book is available on Amazon.com, and Mantel is considering a sequel.
Category:1949 births Category:American professional wrestlers Category:Professional wrestling announcers Category:Professional wrestling managers and valets Category:Living people Category:People from Nashville, Tennessee Category:People from Texas
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| Name | David Guetta |
|---|---|
| Background | non_vocal_instrumentalist |
| Birth name | David Pierre Guetta |
| Born | November 07, 1967Paris, France |
| Genre | House, Progressive House, Electro House, Hip House, Dance, French House |
| Occupation | Producer, DJ |
| Years active | 1984–present| Label = EMI Music France, Virgin |
| Url |
David Pierre Guetta ();was born 7 November 1967 in Paris, France, In 1990, he released "Nation Rap", a hip-hop collaboration with French rapper Sidney Duteil. Guetta's first single, a collaboration with American house vocalist Robert Owens titled "Up & Away", was a minor club hit. In 1995, David Guetta became the manager of Le Palace nightclub and he continued to organise parties there and in other clubs, such as the "Scream" parties in Les Bains Douches. Guetta's debut album Just a Little More Love was released in 2002 on Virgin Records and sold over 300,000 copies. The follow-up single, "Love Don't Let Me Go", was released in 2002. Guetta released a compilation, Fuck Me I'm Famous, in 2003, named after his party in Ibiza. It included "Just For One Day (Heroes)", a remix of David Bowie's song "Heroes". Later in his career, Guetta continued recording compilations under that title.
Guetta's second album, Guetta Blaster, was released in 2004 and contained "The World is Mine" featuring JD Davis. In 2006 "Love Don't Let Me Go" was released as a mash-up with the Tocadisco remix of "Walking Away" by The Egg. The mash-up single charted higher than the original release of the song.
He played in many countries around the world to promote the album. He played in Mauritius in January 2008, accompanied by French rapper JoeyStarr. In the same year, he and his wife Cathy also planned a new event which took place in the Stade de France on 5 July 2008. The event was called "UNIGHTED", he performed with Tiësto, Carl Cox, Joachim Garraud and Martin Solveig in front of a crowd of 40,000. |Record of the Year |"I Gotta Feeling"(with The Black Eyed Peas) | |- |Best Dance Recording |rowspan="2"|"When Love Takes Over"(with Kelly Rowland) | |- |Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical | |- |Best Electronic/Dance Album |One Love | |- |rowspan="3"|World Music Awards |Best DJ | | |- |Best Producer | | |- |Best Selling French artist | | |- ||NRJ Music Awards | International Album of the Year |One Love | |- |DJ Magazine |Top 100 DJs | |Second Place |}
Category:1967 births Category:Living people Category:French people of Moroccan descent Category:Club DJs Category:French dance musicians Category:French DJs Category:People from Paris Category:World Music Awards winners Category:Grammy Award winners Category:French Jews Category:Sephardi Jews Category:Mizrahi Jews
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| Name | Barbra Streisand |
|---|---|
| Background | solo_singer |
| Birth name | Barbara Joan Streisand |
| Born | April 24, 1942Brooklyn, New York, U.S. |
| Genre | Broadway, traditional pop, adult contemporary |
| Occupation | singer-songwriter, actress, film producer, director |
| Other names | Mrs. Elliotvt Gould, Barbra Streisand Gould, Mrs. Barbra Gould, Ms. Barbra Streisand, Mrs. James Brolin, Barbra Gould Brolin, Barbra Streisand Gould Brolin, Mrs. Barbra Streisand, Mrs. Barbra Brolin |
| Years active | 1957–present |
| Label | Columbia Records |
| Url | |
| Spouse | Elliott Gould (1963–1971)James Brolin (1998–present) |
She is one of the most commercially and critically successful entertainers in modern entertainment history, with more than 71.5 million albums shipped in the United States and 140 million albums sold worldwide.
On September 26, 2009, Streisand performed a one-night-only show at the Village Vanguard in New York City's Greenwich Village.
In September 2008, Parade magazine included Streisand on their Giving Back Fund's second annual Giving Back 30 survey, "a ranking of the celebrities who have made the largest donations to charity in 2007 according to public records".David di Donatello for Best Foreign Actress Tied with Mia Farrow for Rosemary's BabyGolden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or ComedyNominated—BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role also for Hello, Dolly! |- | 1969 | Hello, Dolly! | Dolly Levi | Nominated—BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role also for Funny GirlNominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy |- |rowspan=2|1970 | On a Clear Day You Can See Forever | Daisy Gamble / Melinda Tentres |- | The Owl and the Pussycat | Doris Wilgus/Wadsworth/Wellington/Waverly | Nominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy |- |rowspan=2| 1972 | What's Up, Doc? | Judy Maxwell | |- | Up the Sandbox | Margaret Reynolds | |- | 1973 | The Way We Were | Katie Morosky | David di Donatello for Best Foreign Actress Tied with Tatum O'Neal for Paper MoonNominated—Academy Award for Best ActressNominated—BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading RoleNominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama |- | 1974 | For Pete's Sake | Henrietta 'Henry' Robbins | |- | 1975 | Funny Lady | Fanny Brice |Nominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy |- | 1976 | A Star Is Born | Esther Hoffman Howard | Academy Award for Best Original Song Shared with Paul Williams (lyrics) for the song "Evergreen (Love Theme from A Star Is Born)"Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or ComedyGolden Globe Award for Best Original Song Shared with Paul Williams (lyrics) for the song "Evergreen (Love Theme from A Star Is Born)"Nominated—BAFTA Award for Best Film Music Shared with Paul Williams, Kenny Ascher, Rupert Holmes, Leon Russell, Kenny Loggins, Alan Bergman, Marilyn Bergman, Donna Weiss |- | 1979 | The Main Event | Hillary Kramer | |- | 1981 | All Night Long | Cheryl Gibbons | |- | 1983 | Yentl | Yentl/Anshel |(also director and producer)Golden Globe Award for Best DirectorNastro d'Argento for Best New Foreign DirectorNominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy |- | 1987 | Nuts | Claudia Faith Draper | Nominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama |- | 1991 | The Prince of Tides | Dr. Susan Lowenstein |(also director and producer)Nominated—Academy Award for Best Picture Shared with Andrew S. KarschNominated—Directors Guild of America AwardNominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Director |- | 1996 | The Mirror Has Two Faces | Rose Morgan |(also director and producer)Nominated—Academy Award for Best Original Song Shared with Marvin Hamlisch, Robert John Lange and Bryan Adams for the song "I Finally Found Someone"Nominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or ComedyNominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song Shared with Marvin Hamlisch, Robert John Lange and Bryan Adams for the song "I Finally Found Someone" |- | 2004 | Meet the Fockers | Roz Focker | |- | 2010 | Little Fockers | Roz Focker | |}
* Category:1942 births Category:1950s singers Category:1960s singers Category:1970s singers Category:1980s singers Category:1990s singers Category:2000s singers Category:2010s singers Category:Actors from New York City Category:American dance musicians Category:American female pop singers Category:American film actors Category:American film directors Category:American musical theatre actors Category:American stage actors Category:American people of Austrian-Jewish descent Category:Best Actress Academy Award winners Category:Best Director Golden Globe winners Category:Best Song Academy Award winning songwriters Category:Daytime Emmy Award winners Category:Emmy Award winners Category:English-language singers Category:Erasmus Hall High School alumni Category:Female film directors Category:BRIT Award winners Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Category:Jewish actors Category:Jewish American composers and songwriters Category:Jewish singers Category:Kennedy Center honorees Category:Living people Category:New York Democrats Category:People from Brooklyn Category:People of Jewish descent Category:Tony Award winners Category:United States National Medal of Arts recipients
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| Name | Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus |
|---|---|
| Title | Emperor of the Roman Empire |
| Imgw | 200px |
| Caption | The statue known as the Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century. |
| Reign | 16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14(40 years, 215 days) |
| Full name | Gaius Octavius Thurinus (from birth to adoption by Julius Caesar in 44 BC); Gaius Julius Caesar (from 44 to 27 BC); Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (from 27 BC until death in AD 14) |
| Imperial name | Imperator Caesar Divi f[ilius] Augustus |
| Successor | Tiberius |
| Spouse | 1) Clodia Pulchra 43–40 BC 2) Scribonia 40–38 BC 3) Livia Drusilla 38 BC – AD 14 |
| Issue | Julia the Elder; Gaius Caesar (adoptive); Lucius Caesar (adoptive); Tiberius (adoptive) |
| Royal house | Julio-Claudian |
| House-type | Imperial Dynasty |
| Father | Natural: Gaius Octavius; Adoptive: Julius Caesar (in 44 BC) |
| Mother | Atia Balba Caesonia |
| Date of birth | |
| Place of birth | Rome, Roman Republic |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | Nola, Italia, Roman Empire |
| Place of burial | Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome |
Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. and the respect of the people. Augustus' control over the majority of Rome's legions established an armed threat that could be used against the Senate, allowing him to coerce the Senate's decisions. With his ability to eliminate senatorial opposition by means of arms, the Senate became docile towards him. His rule through patronage, military power, and accumulation of the offices of the defunct Republic became the model for all later imperial governments.
The reign of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the Pax Romana, or Roman peace. Despite continuous wars on the frontiers, and one year-long civil war over the imperial succession, the Mediterranean world remained at peace for more than two centuries. Augustus enlarged the empire dramatically, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, and Raetia, expanded possessions in Africa, and completed the conquest of Hispania. Beyond the frontiers, he secured the empire with client states, and made peace with Parthia through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed networks of roads with an official courier system, established a standing army, established the Praetorian Guard, and created official police and fire-fighting services for Rome. Much of the city was rebuilt under Augustus; and he wrote a record of his own accomplishments, known as the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, which has survived. Upon his death in AD 14, Augustus was declared a god by the Senate—to be worshipped by the Romans. His names Augustus and Caesar were adopted by every subsequent emperor, and the month of Sextilis was renamed 'Augustus' (now August) in honour of his memory. He was succeeded by his adopted son (also stepson and former son-in-law), Tiberius.
After Philippi, a new territorial arrangement was made among the members of the Second Triumvirate. While Antony placed Gaul, the provinces of Hispania, and Italia in the hands of Octavian, Antony traveled east to Egypt where he allied himself with Queen Cleopatra VII, the former lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's infant son, Caesarion. Lepidus was left with the province of Africa, stymied by Antony who conceded Hispania to Octavian instead. There was no more government-controlled land to allot as settlements for their soldiers, so Octavian had to choose one of two options: alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land, or alienating many Roman soldiers who could mount a considerable opposition against him in the Roman heartland; Octavian chose the former. Meanwhile, Octavian asked for a divorce from Clodia Pulchra, the daughter of Fulvia and her first husband Publius Clodius Pulcher. Claiming that his marriage with Clodia had never been consummated, he returned her to her mother, Mark Antony's wife. Fulvia decided to take action. Together with Lucius Antonius she raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. However, Lucius and Fulvia took a political and martial gamble in opposing Octavian, since the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries. Lucius and his allies ended up in a defensive siege at Perusia (modern Perugia), where Octavian forced them into surrender in early 40 BC. Lucius and his army were spared due to his kinship with Antony, the strongman of the East, while Fulvia was exiled to Sicyon. This bloody event sullied Octavian's reputation and was criticized by many, such as the Augustan poet Sextus Propertius.
Sextus Pompeius, son of the First Triumvir Pompey and still a renegade general following Julius Caesar's victory over his father, was established in Sicily and Sardinia as part of an agreement reached with the Second Triumvirate in 39 BC. Octavian succeeded in a temporary alliance when in 40 BC he married Scribonia, a daughter of Lucius Scribonius Libo who was a follower of Pompeius as well as his father-in-law. Scribonia conceived Octavian's only natural child, Julia, who was born the same day that he divorced Scribonia to marry Livia Drusilla, little more than a year after his marriage.
While in Egypt, Antony had been engaged in an affair with Cleopatra and had fathered three children with her. In the autumn of 40, Octavian and Antony approved the Treaty of Brundisium, by which Lepidus would remain in Africa, Antony in the East, Octavian in the West. The Italian peninsula was left open to all for the recruitment of soldiers, but in reality, this provision was useless for Antony in the East. To further cement relations of alliance with Mark Antony, Octavian gave his sister, Octavia Minor, in marriage to Antony in late 40 BC. During their marriage, Octavia gave birth to two daughters (known as Antonia Major and Antonia Minor).
Octavian and Lepidus launched a joint operation against Sextus in Sicily in 36 BC. Sextus fled with his remaining forces to the east, where he was captured and executed in Miletus by one of Antony's generals the following year. However, Lepidus' troops deserted him and defected to Octavian since they were weary of fighting and found Octavian's promises of money to be enticing. Lepidus surrendered to Octavian and was permitted to retain the office of pontifex maximus (head of the college of priests), but was ejected from the Triumvirate, his public career at an end, and was effectively exiled to a villa at Cape Circei in Italy. When Octavian became consul once again on 1 January 33 BC, he opened the following session in the Senate with a vehement attack on Antony's grants of titles and territories to his relatives and to his queen. Trapped on land and sea, deserters of Antony's army fled to Octavian's side daily while Octavian's forces were comfortable enough to make preparations. In a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade, Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece. It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders Agrippa and Gaius Sosius in the battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BC.
The sum of his power derived first of all from various powers of office delegated to him by the Senate and people, secondly from his immense private fortune, and thirdly from numerous patron-client relationships he established with individuals and groups throughout the Empire. All of them taken together formed the basis of his auctoritas, which he himself emphasized as the foundation of his political actions.According to H.H. Scullard, however, Augustus's power was based on the exercise of "a predominant military power and [...] the ultimate sanction of his authority was force, however much the fact was disguised." On the other hand, the provinces not under Octavian's control were overseen by governors chosen by the Roman Senate. Octavian became the most powerful political figure in the city of Rome and in most of its provinces, but did not have sole monopoly on political and martial power. The Senate still controlled North Africa, an important regional producer of grain, as well as Illyria and Macedonia, two martially strategic regions with several legions. However, with control of only five or six legions distributed amongst three senatorial proconsuls, compared to the twenty legions under the control of Augustus, the Senate's control of these regions did not amount to any political or martial challenge to Octavian. The Senate's control over some of the Roman provinces helped maintain a republican façade for the autocratic Principate. Also, Octavian's control of entire provinces for the objective of securing peace and creating stability followed Republican-era precedents, in which such prominent Romans as Pompey had been granted similar military powers in times of crisis and instability.
. Glyptothek, Munich]] In January of 27 BC, the Senate gave Octavian the new titles of Augustus and Princeps. According to Roman religious beliefs, the title symbolized a stamp of authority over humanity—and in fact nature—that went beyond any constitutional definition of his status. After the harsh methods employed in consolidating his control, the change in name would also serve to demarcate his benign reign as Augustus from his reign of terror as Octavian. His new title of Augustus was also more favorable than Romulus, the previous one he styled for himself in reference to the story of Romulus and Remus (founders of Rome), which would symbolize a second founding of Rome. However, the title of Romulus was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image Octavian tried to avoid. With this title he not only boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, but the use of Imperator signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory. The word Caesar was merely a cognomen for one branch of the Julian family, yet Augustus transformed Caesar into a new family line that began with him.
Augustus was granted the right to hang the corona civica, the "civic crown" made from oak, above his door and have laurels drape his doorposts.
Second settlement
In 23 BC, there was a political crisis that involved Augustus' co-consul Terentius Varro Murena, who was part of a conspiracy against Augustus. The exact details of the conspiracy are unknown, yet Murena did not serve a full term as consul before Calpurnius Piso was elected to replace him. However, Augustus handed over to his co-consul Piso all of his official documents, an account of public finances, and authority over listed troops in the provinces while Augustus' supposedly favored nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus came away empty-handed. This was a surprise to many who believed Augustus would have named an heir to his position as an unofficial emperor. The only other times Augustus would serve as consul would be in the years 5 and 2 BC. Augustus was no longer in an official position to rule the state, yet his dominant position over the Roman provinces remained unchanged as he became a proconsul.Augustus was also granted the power of a tribune (tribunicia potestas) for life, though not the official title of tribune. Legally it was closed to patricians, a status that Augustus had acquired years ago when adopted by Julius Caesar. For every following Roman victory the credit was given to Augustus, because Rome's armies were commanded by the legatus, who were deputies of the princeps in the provinces. Augustus' eldest son by marriage to Livia, Tiberius, was the only exception to this rule when he received a triumph for victories in Germania in 7 BC.
Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class. When Augustus failed to stand for election as consul in 22 BC, fears arose once again that Augustus was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate. In 22, 21, and 19 BC, the people rioted in response, and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years, ostensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus. After a theatrical display of refusal before the Senate, Augustus finally accepted authority over Rome's grain supply "by virtue of his proconsular imperium", and ended the crisis almost immediately. It was not until AD 8 that a food crisis of this sort prompted Augustus to establish a praefectus annonae, a permanent prefect who was in charge of procuring food supplies for Rome. as well as sit in the symbolic chair between the two consuls and hold the fasces, an emblem of consular authority. This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was actually a consul, the importance was that he appeared as one before the people. On 6 March 12 BC, after the death of Lepidus, he additionally took up the position of pontifex maximus, the high priest of the collegium of the Pontifices, the most important position in Roman religion. Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the Res Gestae was devoted to his military victories and honors. Augustus also promoted the ideal of a superior Roman civilization with a task of ruling the world (the extent to which the Romans knew it), a sentiment embodied in words that the contemporary poet Virgil attributes to a legendary ancestor of Augustus: tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento—"Roman, remember by your strength to rule the Earth's peoples!" The impulse for expansionism, apparently prominent among all classes at Rome, is accorded divine sanction by Virgil's Jupiter, who in Book 1 of the Aeneid promises Rome imperium sine fine, "sovereignty without limit". Illyricum and Pannonia (modern Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, etc.), and extended the borders of the Africa Province to the east and south. After the reign of the client king Herod the Great (73–4 BC), Judea was added to the province of Syria when Augustus deposed his successor Herod Archelaus. Like Egypt which had been conquered after the defeat of Antony in 30 BC, Syria was governed not by a proconsul or legate of Augustus, but a high prefect of the equestrian class. Again, no military effort was needed in 25 BC when Galatia (modern Turkey) was converted to a Roman province shortly after Amyntas of Galatia was killed by an avenging widow of a slain prince from Homonada. When the rebellious tribes of Cantabria in modern-day Spain were finally quelled in 19 BC, the territory fell under the provinces of Hispania and Lusitania.
Conquering the peoples of the Alps in 16 BC was another important victory for Rome since it provided a large territorial buffer between the Roman citizens of Italy and Rome's enemies in Germania to the north. It was recorded that the pious Tiberius walked in front of his brother's body all the way back to Rome.
of Las Médulas.]] in the Pandyan Kingdom of Southern India, as shown in the Tabula Peutingeriana, with depiction of a "Temple of Augustus" ("Templum Augusti"), an illustration of Indo-Roman relations in the period.]] To protect Rome's eastern territories from the Parthian Empire, Augustus relied on the client states of the east to act as territorial buffers and areas which could raise their own troops for defense. Tiberius was responsible for restoring Tigranes V to the throne of the Kingdom of Armenia. Yet arguably his greatest diplomatic achievement was negotiating with Phraates IV of Parthia (37–2 BC) in 20 BC for the return of the battle standards lost by Crassus in the Battle of Carrhae, a symbolic victory and great boost of morale for Rome. Before the final fight with Antony, Octavian's campaigns against the tribes in Dalmatia was the first step in expanding Roman dominions to the Danube. A prime example of Roman loss in battle was the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in AD 9, where three entire legions led by Publius Quinctilius Varus were destroyed with few survivors by Arminius, leader of the Cherusci, an apparent Roman ally. If someone was to succeed his unofficial position of power, they were going to have to earn it through their own publicly proven merits. After the death of Marcellus in 23 BC, Augustus married his daughter to Agrippa. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Vipsania Julia, Agrippina the Elder, and Postumus Agrippa, so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died. Shortly after the Second Settlement, Agrippa was granted a five-year term of administering the eastern half of the Empire with the imperium of a proconsul and the same tribunicia potestas granted to Augustus (although not trumping Augustus' authority), his seat of governance stationed at Samos in the eastern Aegean.
Augustus' intent to make Gaius and Lucius Caesar his heirs was apparent when he adopted them as his own children. After Agrippa died in 12 BC, Livia's son Tiberius was ordered to divorce his own wife Vipsania and marry Agrippa's widow, Augustus' daughter Julia—as soon as a period of mourning for Agrippa had ended.
Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers as of 6 BC, but shortly thereafter went into retirement, reportedly wanting no further role in politics while he exiled himself to Rhodes. It could very well have been from feelings of jealousy and being left out since Augustus' young grandchildren-turned-sons, Gaius and Lucius, joined the college of priests at an early age, were presented to spectators in a more favorable light, and were introduced to the army in Gaul. In that year, Tiberius was also granted the powers of a tribune and proconsul, emissaries from foreign kings had to pay their respects to him, and by 13 was awarded with his second triumph and equal level of imperium with that of Augustus. He certainly fell out of Augustus' favor as an heir; the historian Erich S. Gruen notes various contemporary sources that state Postumus Agrippa was a "vulgar young man, brutal and brutish, and of depraved character." Tiberius and his son Drusus delivered the eulogy while standing atop two rostra. In 410, during the Sack of Rome, the mausoleum was despoiled by the Goths and his ashes scattered.
The historian D.C.A. Shotter states that Augustus' policy of favoring the Julian family line over the Claudian might have afforded Tiberius sufficient cause to show open disdain for Augustus after the latter's death; instead, Tiberius was always quick to rebuke those who criticized Augustus. Shotter states that Tiberius focused his anger and criticism on Gaius Asinius Gallus (for marrying Vipsania after Augustus forced Tiberius to divorce her) as well as the two young Caesars Gaius and Lucius, instead of Augustus, the real architect of his divorce and imperial demotion.
Legacy
Augustus' reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted for nearly fifteen hundred years through the ultimate decline of the Western Roman Empire and until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Both his adoptive surname, Caesar, and his title Augustus became the permanent titles of the rulers of Roman Empire for fourteen centuries after his death, in use both at Old Rome and at New Rome. In many languages, caesar became the word for emperor, as in the German Kaiser and in the Bulgarian and subsequently Russian Tsar. The cult of Divus Augustus continued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to Christianity in 391 by Theodosius I. Consequently, there are many excellent statues and busts of the first emperor. He had composed an account of his achievements, the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, to be inscribed in bronze in front of his mausoleum. The police force was divided into cohorts of 500 men each, while the units of firemen ranged from 500 to 1,000 men each, with 7 units assigned to 14 divided city sectors. A praefectus vigilum, or "Prefect of the Watch" was put in charge of the vigiles, Rome's fire brigade and police. Besides the advent of swifter communication amongst Italian polities, his extensive building of roads throughout Italy also allowed Rome's armies to march swiftly and at an unprecedented pace across the country. He also restored 82 different temples to display his care for the Roman pantheon of deities.The longevity of Augustus' reign and its legacy to the Roman world should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. As Tacitus wrote, the younger generations alive in AD 14 had never known any form of government other than the Principate. The Augustan era poets Virgil and Horace praised Augustus as a defender of Rome, an upholder of moral justice, and an individual who bore the brunt of responsibility in maintaining the empire. He continued to say that, with Augustus' death and swearing of loyalty to Tiberius, the people of Rome simply traded one slaveholder for another. Tacitus, however, records two contradictory but common views of Augustus:
According to the second opposing opinion:
In a recent biography on Augustus, Anthony Everitt asserts that through the centuries, judgments on Augustus' reign have oscillated between these two extremes but stresses that:
Tacitus was of the belief that Nerva (r. 96–98) successfully "mingled two formerly alien ideas, principate and liberty." The poet Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (AD 39–65) was of the opinion that Caesar's victory over Pompey and the fall of Cato the Younger (95 BC–46 BC) marked the end of traditional liberty in Rome; historian Chester G. Starr, Jr. writes of his avoidance of criticizing Augustus, "perhaps Augustus was too sacred a figure to accuse directly."
The Anglo-Irish writer Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), in his Discourse on the Contests and Dissentions in Athens and Rome, criticized Augustus for installing tyranny over Rome, and likened what he believed Great Britain's virtuous constitutional monarchy to Rome's moral Republic of the 2nd century BC. Thomas Gordon and the French political philosopher Montesquieu (1689–1755) both remarked that Augustus was a coward in battle.
Revenue reforms
hoard, from an ancient Tamil country, Pandyan Kingdom of present day Tamil Nadu in India. British Museum]]Augustus' public revenue reforms had a great impact on the subsequent success of the Empire. Augustus brought a far greater portion of the Empire's expanded land base under consistent, direct taxation from Rome, instead of exacting varying, intermittent, and somewhat arbitrary tributes from each local province as Augustus' predecessors had done. This reform greatly increased Rome's net revenue from its territorial acquisitions, stabilized its flow, and regularized the financial relationship between Rome and the provinces, rather than provoking fresh resentments with each new arbitrary exaction of tribute. Indirect taxes included a 4% tax on the price of slaves, a 1% tax on goods sold at auction, and a 5% tax on the inheritance of estates valued at over 100,000 sesterces by persons other than the next of kin.
An equally important reform was the abolition of private tax farming, which was replaced by salaried civil service tax collectors. Private contractors that raised taxes had been the norm in the Republican era, and some had grown powerful enough to influence the amount of votes for politicians in Rome. The tax farmers had gained great infamy for their depredations, as well as great private wealth, by winning the right to tax local areas. Rome's revenue was the amount of the successful bids, and the tax farmers' profits consisted of any additional amounts they could forcibly wring from the populace with Rome's blessing. Lack of effective supervision, combined with tax farmers' desire to maximize their profits, had produced a system of arbitrary exactions that was often barbarously cruel to taxpayers, widely (and accurately) perceived as unfair, and very harmful to investment and the economy.
Kingdom, southern coast of the Arabian peninsula. This is also an imitation of a coin of Augustus. 1st century]]
The use of Egypt's immense land rents to finance the Empire's operations resulted from Augustus' conquest of Egypt and the shift to a Roman form of government. as well as bread and circuses for the population of Rome.
Month of August
The month of August (Latin: Augustus) is named after Augustus; until his time it was called Sextilis (named so because it had been the sixth month of the original Roman calendar and the Latin word for six was sex). Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see Julian calendar). According to a senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed to honor Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, fell in that month. Although this did not apply to the Subura slums, which were still as rickety and fire-prone as ever, he did leave a mark on the monumental topography of the centre and of the Campus Martius, with the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace) and monumental sundial, whose central gnomon was an obelisk taken from Egypt. He also built the Temple of Caesar, the Baths of Agrippa, and the Forum of Augustus with its Temple of Mars Ultor. Other projects were either encouraged by him, such as the Theatre of Balbus, and Agrippa's construction of the Pantheon, or funded by him in the name of others, often relations (e.g. Portico of Octavia, Theatre of Marcellus). Even his Mausoleum of Augustus was built before his death to house members of his family. There are also many buildings outside of the city of Rome that bear Augustus' name and legacy, such as the Theatre of Merida in modern Spain, the Maison Carrée built at Nîmes in today's southern France, as well as the Trophy of Augustus at La Turbie, located near Monaco., late 1st century BC]] After the death of Agrippa in 12 BC, a solution had to be found in maintaining Rome's water supply system. This came about because it was overseen by Agrippa when he served as aedile, and was even funded by him afterwards when he was a private citizen paying at his own expense. In the late Augustan era, the commission of five senators called the curatores locorum publicorum iudicandorum (translated as "Supervisors of Public Property") was put in charge of maintaining public buildings and temples of the state cult. Augustus created the senatorial group of the curatores viarum (translated as "Supervisors for Roads") for the upkeep of roads; this senatorial commission worked with local officials and contractors to organize regular repairs.
Physical appearance
The biographer Suetonius describes Augustus' outward appearance as follows: "He was unusually handsome ... He had clear, bright eyes ... His teeth were wide apart, small, and ill-kept; his hair was slightly curly and inclining to golden; his eyebrows met. His ears were of moderate size, and his nose projected a little at the top and then bent ever so slightly inward. His complexion was between dark and fair. He was short of stature ..."
Ancestry
Descendants
Augustus's only child was his daughter. :1. Julia the Elder, 39 BC – AD 14, had five children; ::A. Gaius Caesar, 20 BC – AD 4, died without issue ::B. Julia the Younger, 19 BC – AD 28, had two children; :::I. Aemilia Lepida (fiancee of Claudius), 4 BC – AD 53, had five children; ::::a. Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus, 14 – 54, had one child; :::::i. Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus the younger, 50–66, died young ::::b. Junia Calvina, 15–79, died without issue ::::c. Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus, d. 64 without issue ::::d. Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus the elder, d. 49 without issue ::::e. Junia Lepida, ca 18–65, issue unknown ::C. Lucius Caesar, 17 BC – AD 2, died without issue ::D. Agrippina the Elder, 14 BC – AD 33, had six children; :::I. Nero Caesar, 6–30, died without issue :::II. Drusus Caesar, 7–33, died without issue :::III. Caligula, 12–41, had one child; ::::a. Julia Drusilla, 39–41, died young :::IV. Agrippina the Younger, 15–59, had one child; ::::a. Nero, 37–68, had one child; :::::i. Claudia Augusta, Jan. 63 – April 63; died young :::V. Drusilla (sister of Caligula), 16–38, died without issue :::VI. Julia Livilla, 18–42, died without issue ::E. Agrippa Postumus, 12 BC – AD 14, died without issue
See also
Augustan literature (ancient Rome) Augustan poetry Caesar's Comet Gaius Maecenas Gaius Octavian (Rome character) Indo-Roman trade and relations Julio-Claudian family tree Octavia (gens)
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
Bivar, A.D.H. (1983). "The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids", in The Cambridge History of Iran (Vol 3:1), 21–99. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater. London, New York, New Rochelle, Melbourne, and Sydney: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20092-X. Blackburn, Bonnie & Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. (1999). The Oxford Companion to the Year. Oxford University Press. Reprinted with corrections 2003. Bourne, Ella. "Augustus as a Letter-Writer", Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association (Volume 49, 1918): 53–66. Brosius, Maria. (2006). The Persians: An Introduction. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32089-5 (hbk). Bunson, Matthew. (1994). Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. New York: Facts on File Inc. ISBN 0-8160-3182-7 Chisholm, Kitty and John Ferguson. (1981). Rome: The Augustan Age; A Source Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press, in association with the Open University Press. ISBN 0-19-872108-0 Dio, Cassius. (1987) The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044448-3. Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing (hardcover, ISBN 0-631-22957-4; paperback, ISBN 0-631-22958-2). Eder, Walter. (2005). "Augustus and the Power of Tradition", in The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World), ed. Karl Galinsky, 13–32. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ISBN 0-521-80796-4; paperback, ISBN 0-521-00393-8). Everitt, Anthony (2006) Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor. Random House Books. ISBN 1-4000-6128-8. Gruen, Erich S. (2005). "Augustus and the Making of the Principate", in The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World), ed. Karl Galinsky, 33–51. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ISBN 0-521-80796-4; paperback, ISBN 0-521-00393-8). Kelsall, Malcolm. "Augustus and Pope", The Huntington Library Quarterly (Volume 39, Number 2, 1976): 117–131. Scott, Kenneth. "The Political Propaganda of 44–30 B.C." Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 11, (1933), pp. 7–49. Shaw-Smith, R. "A Letter from Augustus to Tiberius", Greece & Rome (Volume 18, Number 2, 1971): 213–214. Shotter, D.C.A. "Tiberius and the Spirit of Augustus", Greece & Rome (Volume 13, Number 2, 1966): 207–212. Southern, Pat. (1998). Augustus. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16631-4. Starr, Chester G., Jr. "The Perfect Democracy of the Roman Empire", The American Historical Review (Volume 58, Number 1, 1952): 1–16. Rowell, Henry Thompson. (1962). The Centers of Civilization Series: Volume 5; Rome in the Augustan Age. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-0956-4
Further reading
Bleicken, Jochen. (1998). Augustus. Eine Biographie. Berlin. Galinsky, Karl. Augustan Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-691-05890-3). Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, Journal of Roman Studies 60 (1970): 169–85 Jones, R. F. J. and Bird, D. G., Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna, Journal of Roman Studies 62 (1972): 59–74. Jones, A.H.M. "The Imperium of Augustus", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 41, Parts 1 and 2. (1951), pp. 112–119. Jones, A.H.M. Augustus. London: Chatto & Windus, 1970 (paperback, ISBN 0-7011-1626-9). Osgood, Josiah. Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire. New York: Cambridge University Press (USA), 2006 (hardback, ISBN 0-521-85582-9; paperback, ISBN 0-521-67177-9). Raaflaub, Kurt A. & Toher, Mark (eds.). Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate. Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-08447-0). Reinhold, Meyer. The Golden Age of Augustus (Aspects of Antiquity). Toronto, ON: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1978 (hardcover, ISBN 0-89522-007-5; paperback, ISBN 0-89522-008-3). Roebuck, C. (1966). The World of Ancient Times. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Southern, Pat. Augustus (Roman Imperial Biographies). New York: Routledge, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-415-16631-4); 2001 (paperback, ISBN 0-415-25855-3). Zanker, Paul. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Thomas Spencer Jerome Lectures). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1989 (hardcover, ISBN 0-472-10101-3); 1990 (paperback, ISBN 0-472-08124-1).
External links
;Primary sourcesCassius Dio's Roman History: Books 45–56, English translation Gallery of the Ancient Art: August Humor of Augustus Life of Augustus by Nicolaus of Damascus, English translation Suetonius' biography of Augustus, Latin text with English translation The Res Gestae Divi Augusti (The Deeds of Augustus, his own account: complete Latin and Greek texts with facing English translation) The Via Iulia Augusta: road built by the Romans; constructed on the orders of Augustus between the 13–12 B.C. ;Secondary source material
Augustus—short biography at the BBC Brown, F. The Achievements of Augustus Caesar, Clio History Journal, 2009. "Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana"—essay by Steven Kreis about Augustus's legacy "De Imperatoribus Romanis"—article about Augustus at Garrett G. Fagan's online encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Octavian / Augustus—pages by Yong-Ling Ow Category:Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid Category:Deified Roman emperors Category:Heirs of Caesar Category:Imperial Roman consuls Category:Iulii Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty Category:Octavii Category:People from Rome (city) Category:Republican holders of the role of pontifex maximus Category:63 BC births Category:14 deaths Category:1st-century BC Romans Category:1st-century BC clergy Category:1st-century clergy Category:1st-century Roman emperors
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