The earliest known Turkic inscriptions are the two monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia. They were erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khan and dating back to some time between 732 and 735, constitute another important early record. After the discovery and excavation of these monuments and associated stone slabs by Russian archaeologists in the wider area surrounding the Orkhon Valley between 1889 and 1893, it became established that the language on the inscriptions was the Old Turkic language written using the Orkhon script, which has also been referred to as "Turkic runes" or "runiform" due to an external similarity to the Germanic runic alphabets.
With the Turkic expansion during Early Middle Ages (c. 6th–11th centuries), peoples speaking Turkic languages spread across Central Asia, covering a vast geographical region stretching from Siberia to Europe and the Mediterranean. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, Oghuz Turkic—the direct ancestor of today's Turkish language—into Anatolia during the 11th century. Also during the 11th century, an early linguist of the Turkic languages, Mahmud al-Kashgari from the Kara-Khanid Khanate, published the first comprehensive Turkic language dictionary and map of the geographical distribution of Turkic speakers in the Compendium of the Turkic Dialects (Ottoman Turkish: Divânü Lügati't-Türk).
The past few decades have seen the continuing work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language, mostly from English. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance. However, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, "political party"—also failed to meet with popular approval (fırka has been replaced by the French loanword parti). Some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings; for example betik (originally meaning "book") is now used to mean "script" in computer science.
Many of the words derived by TDK coexist with their older counterparts. This usually happens when a loanword changes its original meaning. For instance, dert, derived from the Persian dard (درد "pain"), means "problem" or "trouble" in Turkish; whereas the native Turkish word ağrı is used for physical pain. Sometimes the loanword has a slightly different meaning from the native Turkish word, creating a situation similar to the coexistence of Germanic and Romance words in English (see List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents). Among some of the old words that were replaced are terms in geometry, cardinal directions, some months' names, and many nouns and adjectives. Some examples of modern Turkish words and the old loanwords are:
{| class="wikitable" border="1" |- ! align=left | Ottoman Turkish ! align=left | Modern Turkish ! align=left | English translation ! align=left | Comments |- |müselles || üçgen || triangle || Compound of the noun üç ("three") and the very old Turkic noun gen ("tension", "side") |- |tayyare || uçak || airplane || Derived from the verb uçmak ("to fly"). The word was first proposed to mean "airport". |- |nispet || oran || ratio || The old word is still used in the language today together with the new one. The modern word is from Old Turkic verb or- (to cut). |- |şimal || kuzey || north || Derived from the Old Turkic noun kuz ("cold and dark place", "shadow"). The word is restored from Middle Turkic usage. |- |teşrinievvel || ekim || October || The noun ekim means "the action of planting", referring to the planting of cereal seeds in autumn, which is widespread in Turkey |}
Turkish is natively spoken by the Turkish people in Turkey and by the Turkish diaspora in some 30 other countries. In particular, Turkish-speaking minorities exist in countries that formerly (in whole or part) belonged to the Ottoman Empire, such as Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece (primarily in Western Thrace), the Republic of Macedonia, Romania, and Serbia. More than two million Turkish speakers live in Germany, and there are significant Turkish-speaking communities in France, the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Due to the cultural assimilation of Turkish immigrants in host countries, not all ethnic Turkish immigrants speak the language with native fluency.
The number of native speakers in Turkey is over 67 million, corresponding to about 93 percent of the population. Turkish is spoken as a first or second language by almost all of Turkey's residents, with Kurdish making up most of the remainder (about 3,950,000 as estimated in 1980). However, even most linguistic minorities in Turkey are bilingual, speaking Turkish as a second language to levels of native fluency.
In Turkey, the regulatory body for Turkish is the Turkish Language Association (Türk Dil Kurumu or TDK), which was founded in 1932 under the name Türk Dili Tetkik Cemiyeti ("Society for Research on the Turkish Language"). The Turkish Language Association was influenced by the ideology of linguistic purism: indeed one of its primary tasks was the replacement of loanwords and foreign grammatical constructions with equivalents of Turkish origin. These changes, together with the adoption of the new Turkish alphabet in 1928, shaped the modern Turkish language spoken today. TDK became an independent body in 1951, with the lifting of the requirement that it should be presided over by the Minister of Education. This status continued until August 1983, when it was again made into a governmental body in the constitution of 1982, following the military coup d'état of 1980.
The standard dialect of the Turkish language is İstanbul. Rumelice is spoken by immigrants from Rumelia, and includes the distinct dialects of Deliorman, Dinler, and Adakale, which are influenced by the theoretized Balkan linguistic union. Kıbrıs Türkçesi is the name for Cypriot Turkish and is spoken by the Turkish Cypriots. Edirne is the dialect of Edirne. Ege is spoken in the Aegean region, with its usage extending to Antalya. The nomadic Yörük tribes of the Mediterranean Region of Turkey also have their own dialect of Turkish. This group is not to be confused with the Yuruk nomads of Macedonia, Greece, and European Turkey who speak Balkan Gagauz Turkish.
Güneydoğu is spoken in the southeast, to the east of Mersin. Doğu, a dialect in Eastern Anatolia, has a dialect continuum with Azeri, particularly with Karapapak dialects in some areas. The Central Anatolia region speaks Orta Anadolu. Karadeniz, spoken in the Eastern Black Sea Region and represented primarily by the Trabzon dialect, exhibits substratum influence from Greek in phonology and syntax. Kastamonu is spoken in Kastamonu and its surrounding areas. The Hemşinli dialect, known as Hemşince, is spoken by the eastern group of Hamshenis around Artvin, influenced by Armenian. Karamanlıca is spoken in Greece, where it is also named Kαραμανλήδικα (Karamanlidika). It is the literary standard for Karamanlides.
The phoneme , usually referred to as yumuşak g ("soft g"), ğ in Turkish orthography, represents a rather weak front-velar or palatal approximant between front vowels. It never occurs at the beginning of a word or a syllable, but always follows a vowel. When word-final or preceding another consonant, it lengthens the preceding vowel. some examples are given below.
When a vowel is added to many nouns ending with postvocalic and
The vowels of the Turkish language are, in their alphabetical order, a, e, ı, i, o, ö, u, and ü. Undotted <ı> is the close back unrounded vowel . There are no diphthongs in Turkish; when two vowels come together, which occurs rarely and only with loanwords, each vowel retains its individual sound. However, a slight diphthong can occur when two vowels surround a yumuşak g. For example, the word soğuk ("cold") can be pronounced /soʊk/ (resembling the English soak) by some speakers.
The Turkish vowel system can be considered as being two-dimensional, where vowels are characterised by two features: front and back and rounded and unrounded. Vowel harmony is the principle by which a native Turkish word incorporates either exclusively back vowels (a, ı, o, and u) or exclusively front vowels (e, i, ö, and ü). The pattern of vowels is shown in the table below.
{| class="wikitable" border="1" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;" |+ Turkish vowels |- ! || colspan="2" | Front || colspan="2" | Back |- ! || Unrounded || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded |- ! High | i || ü || ı || u |- ! Low | e || ö || a || o |}
Grammatical affixes have "a chameleon-like quality", and obey one of the following patterns of vowel harmony: twofold (-e/-a): the locative suffix, for example, is -de after front vowels and -da after back vowels. The notation -de² is a convenient shorthand for this pattern.
The following examples, based on the copula -dir4 ("[it] is"), illustrate the principles of vowel harmony in practice: Türkiye'dir ("it is Turkey"), kapıdır ("it is the door"), bu gündür ("it is the day"), paltodur ("it is the coat").
There are some exceptions to the rules of vowel harmony. In compound words, the vowels need not harmonize between the constituent words of the compound. Forms like bu+gün ("today") or baş+kent ("capital") are permissible. In addition, vowel harmony does not apply in loanwords and some invariant affixes, such as -yor (present tense) and -bil- (potential). Some loanwords do, however, exhibit partial or even complete vowel harmony (e.g. mümkün "possible" < Arabic mumkin; and dürbün "binoculars" < Persian dūrbīn). There are also a few native Turkish words that do not follow the rule, such as anne ("mother"). In such words, suffixes harmonize with the final vowel: thus annedir ("she is a mother"). Many loanwords from Arabic and French, however, take front-vowel suffixes after final back vowels: for example halsiz < hal + -siz4 "listless", meçhuldür < meçhul + -dir4 "it is unknown", harfler < harf + -ler² "(alphabetical) letters" (instead of the expected *halsız, *meçhuldur and *harflar).
The road sign in the photograph above illustrates several of these features:
Turkish is an agglutinative language and frequently uses affixes, and specifically suffixes, or endings. One word can have many affixes and these can also be used to create new words, such as creating a verb from a noun, or a noun from a verbal root (see the section on Word formation). Most affixes indicate the grammatical function of the word. The only native prefixes are alliterative intensifying syllables used with adjectives or adverbs: for example sımsıcak ("boiling hot" < sıcak) and masmavi ("bright blue" < mavi).
The extensive use of affixes can give rise to long words. It is jokingly said that the longest Turkish word is Çekoslovakyalılaştıramadıklarımızdanmışsınız, meaning "You are said to be one of those that we couldn't manage to convert to a Czechoslovak". This example is of course contrived; but long words do frequently occur in normal Turkish, as in this heading of a newspaper obituary column: Bayramlaşamadıklarımız (Bayram [festival]-Recipr-Impot-Partic-Plur-PossPl1; "Those of our number with whom we cannot exchange the season's greetings"). Another example can be seen in the final word of this heading of the online Turkish Spelling Guide (İmlâ Kılavuzu): Dilde birlik, ulusal birliğin vazgeçilemezlerindendir ("Unity in language is among the indispensables [dispense-Pass-Impot-Plur-PossS3-Abl-Copula] of national unity ~ Linguistic unity is a sine qua non of national unity").
{|class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
!rowspan="2"|Case
!rowspan="2"|Ending
!colspan="2"|Examples
!rowspan="2"|Meaning
|-
!köy "village"
!ağaç "tree"
|-
|Nominative
|Ø (none)
|köy
|ağaç
|(the) village/tree
|-
|Genitive
|-in4
|köyün
|ağacın
|the village's/tree's
of the village/tree
|-
|Dative
|-e²
|köye
|ağaca
|to the village/tree
|-
|Accusative
|-i4
|köyü
|ağacı
|the village/tree
|-
|Ablative
|-den²
|köyden
|ağaçtan
|from the village/tree
|-
|Locative
|-de²
|köyde
|ağaçta
|in the village/on the tree
|}
The accusative case marker is used only for definite objects; compare ağaç gördük "we saw a tree" with ağacı gördük "we saw the tree". The plural marker -ler² is generally not used when a class or category is meant: ağaç gördük can equally well mean "we saw trees [as we walked through the forest]"—as opposed to ağaçları gördük "we saw the trees [in question]".
The declension of ağaç illustrates two important features of Turkish phonology: consonant assimilation in suffixes (ağaçtan, ağaçta) and voicing of final consonants before vowels (ağacın, ağaca, ağacı).
Additionally, nouns can take suffixes that assign person: for example -imiz4, "our". With the addition of the copula (for example -im4, "I am") complete sentences can be formed. The interrogative particle mi4 immediately follows the word being questioned: köye mi? "[going] to the village?", ağaç mı? "[is it a] tree?".
{|class="wikitable" border="1" |- !Turkish !English |- |ev |align="right"|(the) house |- |evler |align="right"|(the) houses |- |evin |align="right"|your (sing.) house |- |eviniz |align="right"|your (pl./formal) house |- |evim |align="right"|my house |- |evimde |align="right"|at my house |- |evlerinizin |align="right"|of your houses |- |evlerinizden |align="right"|from your houses |- |evlerinizdendi. |align="right"|(he/she/it) was from your houses |- |evlerinizdenmiş. |align="right"|(he/she/it) was (apparently/said to be) from your houses |- |Evinizdeyim. |align="right"|I am at your house. |- |Evinizdeymişim. |align="right"|I was (apparently) at your house. |- |Evinizde miyim? |align="right"|Am I at your house? |}
The Turkish personal pronouns in the nominative case are ben (1s), sen (2s), o (3s), biz (1pl), siz (2pl, or formal/polite 2s), and onlar (3pl). They are declined regularly with some exceptions: benim (1s gen.); bizim (1pl gen.); bana (1s dat.); sana (2s dat.); and the oblique forms of o use the root on. All other pronouns (reflexive kendi and so on) are declined regularly.
* definite (possessive) compound (belirtili tamlama). E.g. Türkiye'nin sesi "the voice of Turkey (radio station)": the voice belonging to Turkey. Here the relationship is shown by the genitive ending -in4 added to the first noun; the second noun has the third-person suffix -(s)i4.
* indefinite (qualifying) compound (belirtisiz tamlama). E.g. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti "Turkey-Republic = the Republic of Turkey": not the republic belonging to Turkey, but the Republic that is Turkey. Here the first noun has no ending; but the second noun has the ending -(s)i4—the same as in definite compounds.
The following table illustrates these principles. In some cases the constituents of the compounds are themselves compounds: these subsidiary compounds are marked with [square brackets].
{| class="wikitable" border="1" style="margin-left: 1em" |+ Linked nouns and noun groups |- ! Definite (possessive) || Indefinite (qualifier) || Complement || Meaning |- | kimsenin || || yanıtı || nobody's answer |- | || "kimse" || yanıtı || the answer "nobody" |- | Atatürk'ün || || evi || Atatürk's house |- | || Atatürk || Bulvarı || Atatürk Boulevard (named after, not belonging to Atatürk) |- | Orhan'ın || || adı || Orhan's name |- | || "Orhan" || adı || the name "Orhan" |- | || r || sessizi || the consonant r |- | [r sessizi]nin || || söylenişi || pronunciation of the consonant r |- | || Türk || [Dil Kurumu] || Turkish language-society |- | || [Türk Dili] || Dergisi || Turkish-language review |- | || Ford || [aile arabası] || Ford family car |- | Ford'un || || [aile arabası] || (Mr) Ford's family car |- | [Ford ailesi]nin || || arabası || the Ford family's car |- | || Ankara || [Kız Lisesi] || Ankara Girls' School |- | || [yıl sonu] || sınavları || year-end examinations |- | Bulgaristan'ın || || [İstanbul Başkonsolosluğu] || the Istanbul Consulate-General of Bulgaria (located in Istanbul, but belonging to Bulgaria) |- | || [ [İstanbul Üniversitesi] [Edebiyat Fakültesi] ] || [ [Türk Edebiyatı] Profesörü] || Professor of Turkish Literature in the Faculty of Literature of the University of Istanbul |- | || ne oldum || delisi || "what-have-I-become!" madman = parvenu who gives himself airs |}
As the last example shows, the qualifying expression may be a substantival sentence rather than a noun or noun group.
{|class="wikitable" border="1" |- !Turkish !English |- |gel- |align="right"|(to) come |- |gelebil- |align="right"|(to) be able to come |- |gelme- |align="right"|not (to) come |- |geleme- |align="right"|(to) be unable to come |- |gelememiş |align="right"|Apparently (s)he couldn't come |- |gelebilecek |align="right"|(s)he'll be able to come |- |gelmeyebilir |align="right"|(s)he may (possibly) not come |- |gelebilirsen |align="right"|if thou can come |- |gelinir |align="right"|(passive) one comes, people come |- |gelebilmeliydin |align="right"| thou shouldst have been able to come |- |gelebilseydin |align="right"|if thou could have come |- |gelmeliydin |align="right"|thou shouldst have come |}
All Turkish verbs are conjugated in the same way, except for the irregular and defective verb i-, the Turkish copula (corresponding to English to be), which can be used in compound forms (the shortened form is called an enclitic): Gelememişti = Gelememiş idi = Gelememiş + i- + -di.
The most important function of attributive verbs is to form modifying phrases equivalent to the relative clauses found in most European languages. The attributive forms used in these constructions are the future (-ecek²) and an older form (-dik4), which covers both present and past meanings. The use of these "personal or relative participles" is illustrated in the following table, in which the examples are presented according to the grammatical case which would be seen in the equivalent English relative clause.
{|class="wikitable" border="1" |- !colspan="2"|English equivalent !rowspan="2"|Example !colspan="2"|Translation |- !Case of relative pronoun !Pronoun !Literal !Idiomatic |- |Nominative |who, which/that |şimdi konuşan adam |"now speaking man" |the man (who is) now speaking |- |Genitive |whose (nom.) |babası şimdi konuşan adam |"father-his now speaking man" |the man whose father is now speaking |- | |whose (acc.) |babasını dün gördüğüm adam |"father-his-ACC yesterday seen-my man" |the man whose father I saw yesterday |- | |at whose |resimlerine baktığımız ressam |"pictures-his-to looked-our artist" |the artist whose pictures we looked at |- | |of which |muhtarı seçildiği köy |"mayor-its been-chosen-his village" |the village of which he was elected mayor |- | |of which |muhtarı seçilmek istediği köy |"mayor-its to-be-chosen wishing-his village" |the village of which he wishes to be elected mayor |- |Remaining cases (incl. prepositions) |whom, which |yazdığım mektup |"written-my letter" |the letter (which) I wrote |- | |from which |çıktığımız kapı |"emerged-our door" |the door from which we emerged |- | |on which |geldikleri vapur |"come-their ship" |the ship they came on |- | |which + subordinate clause |yaklaştığını anladığı hapishane günleri |"approach-their-ACC understood-his prison days-its" |the prison days (which) he knew were approaching |}
It is possible to alter the word order to stress the importance of a certain word or phrase. The main rule is that the word before the verb has the stress without exception. For example, if one wants to say "Hakan went to school" with a stress on the word "school" (okul, the indirect object) it would be "Hakan okula gitti". If the stress is to be placed on "Hakan" (the subject), it would be "Okula Hakan gitti" which means "it's Hakan who went to school".
Latest 2010 edition of “Büyük Türkçe Sözlük” (Great Turkish Dictionary), the official dictionary of the Turkish language published by Turkish Language Association, contains 616,767 words, expressions, terms and nouns.
The 2005 edition of Güncel Türkçe Sözlük, the official dictionary of the Turkish language published by Turkish Language Association, contains 104,481 words, of which about 86% are Turkish and 14% are of foreign origin. Among the most significant foreign contributors to Turkish vocabulary are Arabic, French, Persian, Italian, English, and Greek.
An example set of words derived from a substantive root:
{|class="wikitable" border="1" |- !Turkish !Components !English !Word class |- |göz |göz |eye |Noun |- |gözlük |göz + -lük |eyeglasses |Noun |- |gözlükçü |göz + -lük + -çü |optician |Noun |- |gözlükçülük |göz + -lük + -çü + -lük |optician's trade |Noun |- |gözlem |göz + -lem |observation |Noun |- |gözlemci |göz + -lem + -ci |observer |Noun |- |gözle |göz + -le |observe |Verb (order) |- |gözlemek |göz + -le + -mek |to observe |Verb (infinitive) |}
Another example, starting from a verbal root:
{|class="wikitable" border="1" |- !Turkish !Components !English !Word class |- |yat- |yat- |lie down |Verb (order) |- |yatmak |yat-mak |to lie down |Verb (infinitive) |- |yatık |yat- + -(ı)k |leaning |Adjective |- |yatak |yat- + -ak |bed, place to sleep |Noun |- |yatay |yat- + -ay |horizontal |Adjective |- |yatkın |yat- + -gın |inclined to; stale (from lying too long) |Adjective |- |yatır- |yat- + -(ı)r- |lay down |Verb (order) |- |yatırmak |yat- + -(ı)r-mak |to lay down |Verb (infinitive) |- |yatırım |yat- + -(ı)r- + -(ı)m |laying down; deposit, investment |Noun |- |yatırımcı |yat- + -(ı)r- + -(ı)m + -cı |depositor, investor |Noun |}
New words are also frequently formed by compounding two existing words into a new one, as in German. A few examples of compound words are given below:
{|class="wikitable" border="1" |- !Turkish !English !Constituent words !Literal meaning |- |pazartesi |Monday |pazar ("Sunday") and ertesi ("after") |after Sunday |- |bilgisayar |computer |bilgi ("information") and say- ("to count") |information counter |- |gökdelen |skyscraper |gök ("sky") and del- ("to pierce") |sky piercer |- |başparmak |thumb |baş ("prime") and parmak ("finger") |primary finger |- |önyargı |prejudice |ön ("before") and yargı ("splitting; judgement") |fore-judging |}
Turkish is written using a modified version of the Latin alphabet introduced in 1928 by Atatürk to replace the Arabic-based Ottoman Turkish alphabet. The Ottoman alphabet marked only three different vowels—long ā, ū and ī—and included several redundant consonants, such as variants of z (which were distinguished in Arabic but not in Turkish). The omission of short vowels in the Arabic script was claimed to make it particularly unsuitable for Turkish, which has eight vowels.
The reform of the script was an important step in the cultural reforms of the period. The task of preparing the new alphabet and selecting the necessary modifications for sounds specific to Turkish was entrusted to a Language Commission composed of prominent linguists, academics, and writers. The introduction of the new Turkish alphabet was supported by public education centers opened throughout the country, cooperation with publishing companies, and encouragement by Atatürk himself, who toured the country teaching the new letters to the public. As a result, there was a dramatic increase in literacy from its original Third World levels.
The Latin alphabet was applied to the Turkish language for educational purposes even before the 20th-century reform. Instances include a 1635 Latin-Albanian dictionary by Frang Bardhi, who also incorporated several sayings in the Turkish language, as an appendix to his work (e.g. alma agatsdan irak duschamas – 'An apple does not fall far from its tree').
Turkish now has an alphabet suited to the sounds of the language: the spelling is largely phonetic, with one letter corresponding to each phoneme. Most of the letters are used approximately as in English, the main exceptions being ‹c›, which denotes (‹j› being used for the found in Persian and European loans); and the undotted ‹ı›, representing . As in German, ‹ö› and ‹ü› represent and . The letter ‹ğ›, in principle, denotes but has the property of lengthening the preceding vowel and assimilating any subsequent vowel. The letters ‹ş› and ‹ç› represent and , respectively. A circumflex is written over back vowels following ‹k›, ‹g›, or ‹l› when these consonants represent , , and —almost exclusively in Arabic and Persian loans. An apostrophe is used to separate proper nouns from any suffixes: e.g. 'in Istanbul'.
The specifically Turkish letters and spellings described above are illustrated in this table:
{|class="wikitable" border="1" |- !Turkish spelling !Pronunciation !Meaning |- | | |[İstanbul district] |- | | |where/that s/he works/worked |- | | |good news |- | | |necessary |- | | |condemned |}
{| border="0" style="width:100%; font-family:serif; font-size:115%; text-align:center;"
|-
!width="33%"|Orthography
!width="33%"|
!width="33%"|Translation
|-
|Ben giderim adım kalır
|
|After I pass, my name remains
|-
|Dostlar beni hatırlasın
|
|May the friends remember me
|-
|Düğün olur bayram gelir
|
|Weddings happen, feasts arrive
|-
|Dostlar beni hatırlasın
|
|May the friends remember me
|-
|
|-
|Can kafeste durmaz uçar
|
|Soul flies from the cage
|-
|Dünya bir han konan göçer
|
|World is an inn, settlers depart
|-
|Ay dolanır yıllar geçer
|
|The moon wanders, years go by
|-
|Dostlar beni hatırlasın
|
|May the friends remember me
|-
|
|-
|Can bedenden ayrılacak
|
|Body will be deprived of life
|-
|Tütmez baca yanmaz ocak
|
|Hearth won't burn, smoke won't rise
|-
|Selam olsun kucak kucak
|
|By armfuls, salutes I pass
|-
|Dostlar beni hatırlasın
|
|May the friends remember me
|-
|
|-
|Açar solar türlü çiçek
|
|Many blooms thrive and fade
|-
|Kimler gülmüş kim gülecek
|
|Who had laughed, who'll be glad
|-
|Murat yalan ölüm gerçek
|
|Desire's lie, real is death
|-
|Dostlar beni hatırlasın
|
|May the friends remember me
|-
|
|-
|Gün ikindi akşam olur
|
|Into evening will turn the days
|-
|Gör ki başa neler gelir
|
|Behold what soon will take place
|-
|Veysel gider adı kalır
|
|Veysel departs, his name remains
|-
|Dostlar beni hatırlasın
|
|May the friends remember me
|}
On-line sources , University of Essen|publisher=Turkish Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association|url=http://www.tusiad.org/haberler/basin/ab/9.pdf|title=The European Turks: Gross Domestic Product, Working Population, Entrepreneurs and Household Data|format=PDF|accessdate=2007-01-06|year=2003| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20051204091302/http://www.tusiad.org/haberler/basin/ab/9.pdf| archivedate = December 4, 2005}}
Category:Agglutinative languages Category:SOV languages
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![Şanlıurfa (often simply known as Urfa in daily language), formerly cited as Edessa or in Kurdish; Riha , or in Armenian Urhai, Arabic الرها ar-Raha) is a city with 462,923 inhabitants (2006 estimate[1]) in south-eastern Turkey, and the capital of Şanlıurfa Province. Urfa is situated on a plain under big open skies, about eighty kilometres east of the Euphrates River. The climate features extremely hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters.](http://web.archive.org./web/20101203174325im_/http://cdn.wn.com/pd/f5/dc/24a449638477eb9a39acbf0ffb25_grande.jpg "Şanlıurfa (often simply known as Urfa in daily language), formerly cited as Edessa or in Kurdish; Riha , or in Armenian Urhai, Arabic الرها ar-Raha) is a city with 462,923 inhabitants (2006 estimate[1]) in south-eastern Turkey, and the capital of Şanlıurfa Province. Urfa is situated on a plain under big open skies, about eighty kilometres east of the Euphrates River. The climate features extremely hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters.")
![Thessaloniki (Greek: Θεσσαλονίκη, IPA: [θesaloˈniki]), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of the Greek region of Macedonia. Its honorific title is Συμπρωτεύουσα (Symprotévousa), literally](http://web.archive.org./web/20101203174325im_/http://cdn.wn.com/pd/33/1d/e2df2935e029f6ef785c6479620d_grande.jpg "Thessaloniki (Greek: Θεσσαλονίκη, IPA: [θesaloˈniki]), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of the Greek region of Macedonia. Its honorific title is Συμπρωτεύουσα (Symprotévousa), literally")
![Şanlıurfa (often simply known as Urfa in daily language), formerly cited as Edessa or in Kurdish; Riha , or in Armenian Urhai, Arabic الرها ar-Raha) is a city with 462,923 inhabitants (2006 estimate[1]) in south-eastern Turkey, and the capital of Şanlıurfa Province. Urfa is situated on a plain under big open skies, about eighty kilometres east of the Euphrates River. The climate features extremely hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters.](http://web.archive.org./web/20101203174325im_/http://cdn.wn.com/pd/f5/dc/24a449638477eb9a39acbf0ffb25_thumb.jpg "Şanlıurfa (often simply known as Urfa in daily language), formerly cited as Edessa or in Kurdish; Riha , or in Armenian Urhai, Arabic الرها ar-Raha) is a city with 462,923 inhabitants (2006 estimate[1]) in south-eastern Turkey, and the capital of Şanlıurfa Province. Urfa is situated on a plain under big open skies, about eighty kilometres east of the Euphrates River. The climate features extremely hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters.")
![Thessaloniki (Greek: Θεσσαλονίκη, IPA: [θesaloˈniki]), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of the Greek region of Macedonia. Its honorific title is Συμπρωτεύουσα (Symprotévousa), literally](http://web.archive.org./web/20101203174325im_/http://cdn.wn.com/pd/33/1d/e2df2935e029f6ef785c6479620d_thumb.jpg "Thessaloniki (Greek: Θεσσαλονίκη, IPA: [θesaloˈniki]), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of the Greek region of Macedonia. Its honorific title is Συμπρωτεύουσα (Symprotévousa), literally")
