) poses with his Bren gun at Chateaudun, 1944]]

A resistance movement is a group or collection of individual groups, dedicated to fighting an invader in an occupied country or the government of a sovereign nation through either the use of physical force, or nonviolence. The term resistance is generally used to designate a movement considered legitimate (from the speaker's point of view). Organizations and individuals critical of foreign intervention and supporting forms of organized movement (particularly where citizens are affected) tend to favor the term. When such a resistance movement uses violence, those favorably disposed to it may also speak of freedom fighters.

There has been a dispute between states since the laws of war were first codified in 1899. The Martens Clause was introduced as a compromise wording for the dispute between the Great Powers who considered francs-tireurs to be unlawful combatants subject to execution on capture and smaller states who maintained that they should be considered lawful combatants. More recently the 1977 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, recognised in Article 1. Paragraph 4 "... in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes..." contains many ambiguities that cloud the issue of who is or is not a legitimate combatant. Hence depending on the perspective of a state's government, a resistance movement may or may not be labelled a terrorist group based on whether the members of a resistance movement are considered lawful or unlawful combatants and their right to resist occupation is recognized. Ultimately, the distinction is a political judgment.

Etymology

The term "Resistance" originates from the self-designation of the French Resistance during World War II. It has become a generic term that has been used to designate underground resistance movements from any country.

While resistance existed prior to WWII, using the term "resistance" to designate a movement meeting the definition prior to WWII might be considered an anachronism. Although it is non-exclusive, the term is still strongly linked to the context of WWII.

Background

Resistance movements can include any irregular armed force that rises up against an enforced or established authority, government, or administration. This frequently includes groups that consider themselves to be resisting tyranny. Some resistance movements are underground organizations engaged in a struggle for national liberation in a country under military occupation or totalitarian domination. Tactics of resistance movements against a constituted authority range from nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience, to industrial sabotage and guerrilla warfare, or even conventional warfare if the resistance movement is strong enough. Any government facing violent acts from a resistance movement usually condemns such acts as terrorism, even when such attacks target only the military or security forces. Resistance during World War II was mainly dedicated to fighting the Axis occupiers. Germany itself also had an anti-Nazi German resistance movement in this period. Although the United Kingdom did not suffer invasion in World War II, preparations were made for a British resistance movement in the event of a German invasion (see Auxiliary Units).

Definition

According to Joint Publication 1-02, the United States Department of Defense defines a resistance movement as "an organized effort by some portion of the civil population of a country to resist the legally established government or an occupying power and to disrupt civil order and stability". In strict military terminology, a resistance movement is simply that; it seeks to resist (change) the policies of a government or occupying power. This may be accomplished through violent or non-violent means. A resistance movement is specifically limited to changing the nature of current power, not to overthrow it. The correct military term for removing or overthrowing a government is an insurgency.

Freedom fighter

loyal to Yunus Khalis, in October 1987]] Freedom fighter is another term for those engaged in a struggle to achieve political freedom for themselves or obtain freedom for others. Though the literal meaning of the words could include anyone who fights for the cause of freedom, in common use it may be restricted to those who are actively involved in an armed rebellion, rather than those who campaign for freedom by peaceful means (though they may use the title in its literal sense).

led the Zimbabwe African National Union]] Generally speaking, freedom fighters are seen as people who are using physical force in order to cause a change in the political and or social order. Notable examples include the South African Umkhonto we Sizwe and the Irish Republican Army (IRA), both of which were considered freedom fighters by supporters. However, a person who is campaigning for freedom through peaceful means may still be classed as a freedom fighter, though in common usage they are called political activists, as in the case of the Black Consciousness Movement.

People who are described as "freedom fighters" are often also called assassins, rebels, insurgents, or terrorists. This leads to the aphorism "one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter". The degree to which this occurs depends on a variety of factors specific to the struggle in which a given freedom fighter group in engaged. During the Cold War, under Ronald Reagan's Reagan Doctrine, the term freedom fighter was used by the United States and other Western Bloc countries to describe rebels in countries controlled by communist states or otherwise under the influence of the Soviet Union, including rebels in Hungary, the anti-communist Contras in Nicaragua, UNITA in Angola and the multi-factional mujahideen in Afghanistan and Jammu and Kashmir. In the media, an effort has been made by the BBC to avoid the phrases "terrorist" or "freedom fighter," except in attributed quotes, in favor of neutral terms such as "militant", "guerrilla", "assassin", "insurgent", "paramilitary" or "militia".

A freedom fighter is different from a mercenary, as they gain no direct material benefit from being involved in a conflict.

Common weapons

Partisans often use captured weapons taken from their enemies, or weapons that have been stolen or smuggled in. They also may use improvised weapons such as Molotov cocktails or IEDs.

Examples of resistance movements

Pre-20th century

Carbonari - 19th century Italian movement resisting Austrian or Bourbon rule.

Sons of Liberty - - Revolutionary patriot group that embraced Republicanism in the United States during the 1760s and 1770s and routinely engaged in acts of violent resistance against British government officials and prominent loyalist sympathizers. The Boston branch of the Sons of Liberty met under the Liberty Tree, from which they would post messages or hang and burn effigies of their enemies.

The Underground Railroad - The pre American Civil War slave escape network consisting of volunteers who were dedicated to secretly helping escaping slaves reach free states or Canada.

The Polish National Government- Underground Polish supreme authority during the January Uprising against Russian occupation of Poland. During 1863-1864 it was a real shadow government supported by majority of Poles, who even paid taxes for it, and was a significant problem for Russian secret police (Okhrana).

Pre-World War II

Irish Republican Army

Filipino guerilla units after official end of Philippine-American War (1902–1913)

Pancho Villa led a resistance movement/rebellion in Mexico in the early 20th century, as did the Zapata brothers.

Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine (1918–1921)

Forest Guerrillas (1921–1922)

Augusto César Sandino led a rebellion against the United States occupation of Nicaragua

Lwów Eaglets

Black Lions (1936)

Non-Cooperation Movement (1919–1939)

World War II

Albanian resistance movement

Austrian resistance movement (O5)

Belgian resistance movement

Bulgarian resistance movement

Burmese resistance movement

Czech Resistance movement

Chinese resistance movements

* Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army

* Anti-Japanese Army for the Salvation of the Country

* Chinese People's National Salvation Army

* Heilungkiang National Salvation Army

* Jilin Self-Defence Army

* Northeast Anti-Japanese National Salvation Army

* Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army

* Northeast People's Anti-Japanese Volunteer Army

* Northeastern Loyal and Brave Army

* Northeastern People's Revolutionary Army

* Northeastern Volunteer Righteous & Brave Fighters

* Hong Kong resistance movements

* Gangjiu dadui (Hong Kong-Kowloon big army)

* Dongjiang Guerrillas (East River Guerrillas, Southern China and Hong Kong organisation)

Danish resistance movement

Dutch resistance movement

Forest Brothers

French resistance movement in World War II, including the Maquis

German resistance movements

* The 20 July plot

* The White Rose

* The Red Orchestra

Greek resistance movement

Italian resistance movement

Jewish resistance movement, including Jewish partisans and Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee

Korean resistance movement

Latvian resistance movement

Lithuanian resistance during World War II

Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian (Forest Brothers, Latvian national partisans, and Lithuanian partisans (1944–1953)) resistance movements during the Soviet invasion and occupation of the Baltic countries (continued after the end of WWII).

Luxembourgish resistance movement

Norwegian resistance movement

Philippine resistance movement (Multiple, often opposing organizations, were active during the Japanese Occupation)

Polish Underground State and Polish resistance organizations, such as:

* Armia Krajowa (the Home Army), Polish underground army in World War II (400 000 sworn members)

* Narodowe Siły Zbrojne

* Bataliony Chłopskie

* Gwardia Ludowa (the Peoples' Guard) and Armia Ludowa (the Peoples' Army)

* Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa (ZOB, the Jewish Fighting Organisation), Jewish resistance movement that led the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943

* Zydowski Zwiazek Walki (ZZW, the Jewish Fighting Union), Jewish resistance movement that led the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943

Slovak resistance movement

Soviet resistance movement of Soviet partisans and underground which had Moscow-organized and spontaneously formed cells opposing German occupation.

Thai resistance movement

Ukrainian Insurgent Army - fought the Poles, the Germans and the Soviets.

Yugoslav resistance movements:

* People's Liberation Army – the partisans

* Yugoslav Royal Army in the Fatherland – Chetniks

Azad Hind Movement

Viet Minh

Planned resistance movements

The Auxiliary Units, organized by Colonel Colin Gubbins as a potential British resistance movement against a possible invasion of the British Isles by Nazi forces, note that it was the only resistance movement established prior to invasion, albeit the invasion never came.

Volunteer Fighting Corps (Japan)

Post-World War II

Weather Underground

American Indian Movement

Algerian resistance

Armenian resistance

Basque separatists (ongoing)

Caucasian separatists (ongoing)

Colombian communist resistance (ongoing)

Cuban anti-Batista resistance

Cuban anti-Castro resistance (ongoing)

Cursed soldiers Polish anticommunist resistance

Dissident republicans (ongoing)

Czechoslovakian resistance

Galician separatists (ongoing)

Greek resistance

Free Wales Army

Front for the Liberation of the Golan (ongoing)

Hungarian Uprising

Human rights resistance (ongoing)

Indian Independence movement and Pakistan movement

Provisional IRA

Jewish Zionist resistance to British occupation in Mandate Palestine

Front de libération du Québec

Khalistan (ongoing)

Kosovo Liberation Army

Kurdish separatism (ongoing)

Hezbollah (ongoing)

Lebanese Communist Party

Los Macheteros puertorrican arm liberation movement (ongoing)

National Liberation Front of Corsica (ongoing)

Tevaga Peasant Movement in India

Telengana Peasant Movement in India

Polish resistance

Palestinian Resistance (ongoing)

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (ongoing)

Polisario Front (ongoing)

Romanian anti-communist resistance movement

Somali Harakat al-Shabaab Mujahideen (ongoing)

Tamil Tigers

Taliban (ongoing)

Tibetan resistance movement

Tupamaros

Sandinistas

Scottish National Liberation Army

South Thailand insurgency (ongoing)

Sudanese resistance (ongoing)

Viet Minh

West Sahara Independence Intifada (ongoing)

Ulster Loyalism (ongoing)

Zapatistas (ongoing)

Sindhudesh (ongoing)

Notable individuals in resistance movements

World War II (anti-Nazi, anti-Fascist)

Mordechaj Anielewicz

Josip Broz - Tito

Edmund Charaszkiewicz

Mildred Harnack

Jan Karski

Henryk Iwański

Jean Moulin

Christian Pineau

Hannie Schaft

Claus von Stauffenberg

Aris Velouchiotis

Mao Zedong

Chiang Kai Shek

Sandro Pertini

Luigi Longo

Ferruccio Parri

Witold Pilecki

Other resistance movements

Toussaint l'ouverture

Spartacus

Robert Mugabe

Michel Bakunin

Buenaventura Durruti

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Geronimo

William Wallace

Lembitu

Louis Joseph Papineau

Nelson Mandela

Nestor Makhno

Maria Nikiforova

Michael Collins

Osceola

Red Cloud

Joan of Arc

Juba

Rummu Jüri

Theobald Wolfe Tone

Osman Batur

Nat Turner

William Lyon Mackenzie

Aivar Voitka

Sant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale

Ülo Voitka

Pancho Villa

Zapata

Ernesto Guevara

Green Movement

Hassan Nasrallah

Abbas al-Musawi

Imad Mughniyah

Bobby Sands

See also

Anti-war

Anti-communism

Anti-fascism

Asymmetric warfare

Civil rights movement

Collaborationism (and Collaboration), the opposite of resistance

Covert cell

Fictional resistance movements and groups - Resistance groups and movements depicted in fiction, often based on real resistance groups and movements.

Fifth column - clandestine citizen operatives loyal to a foreign government

Guerrilla warfare

Hippie

Irregular military

List of guerrillas

List of revolutions and rebellions

Nonviolent resistance

Opposition to the Iraq War

Opposition to the Vietnam War

Partisan (military)

Polish Secret State

Protesting

Propaganda

Reagan Doctrine

Rebellion

Resistance Studies Magazine

Riot

Social Change

Sniper

Special Activities Division

Special Operations Executive

Unconventional warfare

Valkenburg resistance - an example of (Dutch) resistance in practise.

Youth movement

Notes

References

Gardam, Judith Gail (1993). Non-combatant Immunity as a Norm of International Humanitarian,Martinus Nijhoff ISBN 0-7923-2245-2.

Ticehurst, Rupert. The Martens Clause and the Laws of Armed Conflict 30 April 1997, International Review of the Red Cross no 317, p. 125-134

Name	Half Pint
Background	solo_singer
Birth name	Lindon Andrew Roberts
Born
Died
Origin	Kingston, Jamaica
Instrument	Vocals
Genre	Reggae

Half Pint (born and sometimes credited Lindon Andrew Roberts) is a Jamaican dancehall, ragga, and reggae singer.

Biography

Born Lindon Andrew Roberts but commonly known by his stage name Half Pint. Roberts originates from the West Kingston enclave of Rose Lane; a community which has produced Reggae acts such as Bob Marley, Dennis Brown, Peter Tosh, Lee "Scratch" Perry, and Toots Hibbert.

Half Pint began singing in the school choir at All Saints' Primary School. After the completion of his secondary education in 1976, he sought work as a vocalist within the Jamaican music industry. Pint toured the island with various sound systems including Black Scorpio, Jammys, Gemini, Lee's Unlimited and Killimanjaro. Lindon Roberts subsequently worked with top producers such as Errol (John) Marshall; Errol (Myrie) Lewis; Prince (King) Jammy; the rhythm twins, Sly and Robbie; George Phang; Jack Scorpio, Bobby "Digital" Dixon and Mass Hugh. He also lent his vocal talent to local peers like Garnett Silk, Tony Rebel and The Tamlins among others.

In 1983, Pint's first single, "Sally," was released followed by the song "Winsome," both tracks became Reggae hits. The dub-punk group Sublime released a cover of Half Pint's "Loving" in 1996. Half Pint maintains his public profile by frequent touring and guest appearances; many of which are listed on his official website (see external links). He has performed at world music festivals and rock concerts and this has allowed him to gain new fans who may not have been exposed to his music. Half Pint's track "Giving/Sharing" is featured on the soundtrack album for the film The Mighty Quinn (1989). His music has also been used on the films Substitute 2 (1998), and the French comedy Mookie (1998). In 1998, Half Pint was endowed with one of the greatest honors of his career when he signed with the prestigious BMG Music Publishing Company. To date, he is the only reggae singer to accomplish this feat and has in the process, joined fellow BMG artists including Whitney Houston and other world music giants as a member of the BMG family.

Despite being noticeably absent from the recording studios for most of this decade, Half Pint enjoyed relative success on Legal We Legal (his first studio album within a ten-year period). This was followed by a 15 city US tour with Anthony B. Half Pint was presented with "The Key to The City of Lauderdale Lakes" by the Mayor of the Florida suburb in 2000. Half Pint was featured on Sly & Robbie's 25th Anniversary US Tour along with Tony Rebel and Heineken Startime appearances in December 2004 in Jamaica. Half Pint has worked with the California based band, DubCat. New York based Sotti Records label released a Half Pint single in 2005, "Wha Ya Wan," an updated remake of his classic 'Winsome' with R&B; singer (and former Ruff Ryder) DIA.

Half Pint was nominated and awarded the "Producer’s Respect Award" at the 26th International Reggae and World Music Awards held in NYC at the Apollo Theater on May 5, 2007. Half Pint headlined at the Jamaica 360 festival in Ocho Rios, Jamaica in May and is scheduled for a return performance at the 15th Annual Reggae Sumfest in Montego Bay, Jamaica in July. He has also been busy in the studio readying his all-new CD, No Stress Express, for a late summer release.

Half Pint Facts

Pint's first single, "Sally," was released in 1983 followed by "Winsome," which went on to be covered by the Rolling Stones in 1987. Other singles by Pint include "Mr. Landlord," "Level the Vibes," "Substitute Lover" and the hit single, "Victory." His 1986 single "Greetings" helped universalize the term raggamuffin. Sublime's 1996 hit What I Got is based on the chorus on Pint's "Loving"

Works with Other Artist

Half Pint has been featured as a guest on a number of songs by other artist, including:

"Pass It On" by Long Beach Dub Allstars, from the album Right Back

"Life Goes On" by Long Beach Dub Allstars, from the album Wonders of the World

"Sunday Afternoon" by Lucky Boys Confusion, from the album Commitment

"Rivertown" by Snow (musician), from the album "Murder Love"

References

External links

halfpintmusic.com, Half Pint Music - Official Site

http://www.irawma.com, Official site for the International Reggae and World Music Awards

Category:Living people Category:People from Kingston, Jamaica Category:Jamaican reggae musicians